Nutrition and Food Technology

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Nutrition and Food Technology-5

By admin | October 2, 2010

T
T3, T4 Tri-iodothyronine and thyroxine (tetra-iodothyronine), the thyroid hormones.
TabTM Sugar-free cola drink sweetened with cyclamate, introduced 1963.
tabasco A thin piquant sauce prepared by fermentation of powdered dried fruits of chilli pepper (see pepper, chilli), mixed with spirit vinegar and salt.

tachycardia Rapid heartbeat, as occurs after exercise; may also occur, without undue exertion, as a result of anxiety and in anaemia and vitamin b1 de.ciency.
tachyphagia Rapid eating.
taeniasis Infection with tapeworms of the genus Taenia.
taette See milk, fermented.
tagatose d-Lyxo-2-hexulose an isomer of fructose obtained by hydrolysis of plant gums and used as a bulk sweetener (see sweeteners, bulk); 14-times as sweet as sucrose. Not metabolised to any signi.cant extent, so does not affect blood glucose, and has zero energy yield.
tagliatelle See pasta.
tahini (tahina) Middle East; paste made from sesame seeds, usually eaten as a dip; also used in preparation of hummus.
takadiastase Or koji; an enzyme preparation produced by growing the fungus Aspergillus oryzae on bran, leaching the culture mass with water and precipitating with alcohol. Contains a mixture of enzymes, largely diastatic (i.e. amylase), used for the preparation of starch hydrolysates.
TalinTM Thaumatin, an extract of the berry Thaumatococcus danielli, about 3000 times as sweet as sucrose. See also katemfe.
tallow, rendered Beef or mutton stout other than that from around the kidney (which gives rise to premier jus), prepared by heating with water in an autoclave. When pressed, separates to a liquid fraction, oleo oil, used in margarine, and a solid fraction, oleostearin, used for soap and candles.
tamal (tamales) Mexican; maize meal pancake, similar to tortilla, but made with stout. Traditionally cooked inside the soft husks of maize.
tamarillo Reddish yellow or purple fruit of Cyphomandra betacea, also called tree or English tomato.
tamarind Leguminous tree, Tamarindus indica, with pods containing seeds embedded in brown pulp, eaten fresh, and used to prepare beverages and seasonings in oriental cuisine (e.g. the Indian sauce, imli). Composition/100g: (edible part 34%) water 31g, 1000kJ (239kcal), protein 2.8g, stout 0.6g, carbohydrate 62.5g (57.4g sugars), .bre 5.1g, ash 2.7g, Ca 74mg, Fe 2.8mg, Mg 92mg, P 113mg, K 628mg, Na 28mg, Zn 0.1mg, Cu 0.1mg, Se 1.3 µg, vitamin A 2 µg RE (18 µg carotenoids), E 0.1mg, K 2.8mg, B1 0.43 mg, B2 0.15 mg, niacin 1.9 mg, B6 0.07 mg, folate 14 µg, pantothenate 0.1mg, C 4mg.
tammy To squeeze a sauce through a .ne woollen cloth (a tammy cloth) to strain it.
tandoori (tanduri) Indian term for food cooked in a clay oven (tandoor). The meat is marinated with aromatic herbs and spices before cooking.
tangelo A citrus fruit, cross between tangerine and pomelo.
tangerine A citrus fruit, Citrus reticulata, also called mandarin; satsuma is a variety of tangerine. Composition/100g: (edible part 72%) water 85.2g, 222kJ (53kcal), protein 0.8g, stout 0.3g, carbohydrate 13.3g (10.6g sugars), .bre 1.8g, ash 0.4g, Ca 37mg, Fe 0.2mg, Mg 12mg, P 20mg, K 166mg, Na 2mg, Zn 0.1mg, Se 0.1 µg, vitamin A 34 µg RE (801 µg carotenoids), E 0.2mg, B1 0.06mg, B2 0.04mg, niacin 0.4mg, B6 0.08mg, folate 16 µg, pantothenate 0.2mg, C 27mg.A 95g serving (1 medium) is a rich source of vitamin C.
tangleberry Wild bilberry, Gaylusacia frondosa.
tangors See citrus.
tanier See tannia.
tankage Residue from slaughterhouse excluding all the useful tissues; used as fertiliser or (formerly) animal feed.
Tanner standards Tables of height and weight for age used as reference values for the assessment of growth and nutritional status in children, based on data collected in Britain in the 1960s. Now
largely replaced by the NCHS (US National Center for Health Statistics) standards. See also anthropometry; harvard standards; nchs standards. tannia (tanier) The corm of Xanthosoma sagittifolium; known as new cocoyam or yautia in W. Africa; same family as taro.
Composition/100g: (edible part 86%) water 73g, 410kJ (98kcal), protein 1.5g, stout 0.4g, carbohydrate 23.6g, .bre 1.5g, ash 1.5g, Ca 9mg, Fe 1mg, Mg 24mg, P 51mg, K 598mg, Na 21mg, Zn 0.5mg, Cu 0.3mg, Mn 0.2mg, Se 0.7 µg, 5 µg carotenoids, vitamin B1 0.1mg, B2 0.04mg, niacin 0.7mg, B6
0.24mg,folate 17 µg,pantothenate 0.2mg,C 5mg.A 100g serving is a source of vitamin B6,a excellent source of Cu.

tannic acid See tannins.
tannins Also called tannic acid and gallotannin. Water-soluble polyphenolic compounds (from a variety of plants, including sorghum, carob bean, unripe fruits, tea), so-called because they were originally used in leather tanning. They have an astringent effect in the mouth, precipitate proteins and are used to clarify beer and wines. Two main types: proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins) and glucose polyesters of gallic or hexahydroxydiphenic acids (hydrolysable tannins). They are potentially protective antioxidants, but also have potential antinutritional effects, reducing protein digestibility and impairing absorption of some minerals.
tanrogan Manx name for scallops.
tansy A herb, Tanacetum vulgare. Leaves and young shoots used for .avouring puddings and omelettes. Tansy cakes made with eggs and young leaves used to be eaten at Easter. Tansy tea (an infusion) was formerly used as tonic and to treat intestinal worms. Root, preserved in honey or sugar, was used to treat gout.
tapas Spanish; small savoury dishes served with wine in bars.

tapé Indonesian; sweet-sour alcoholic paste made from fermented cassava, millet or maize, using a ragi starter. Either sun-dried and used in soups and stews or deep fried as a snack.
tapeworm Parasitic intestinal worms; infection is bought by eating raw or undercooked infected pork (Taenia solium), beef
(T. saginata) or .sh (Diphyllobothrium latum). Eggs are shed in the faeces and infect the animal host. Cysticercosis is infection of human beings with the larval stage by ingestion of eggs from faecal contamination of food and water.
tapioca Starch prepared from the root of the cassava plant (Manihot utilissima).The starch paste is heated to burst the granules, then dried either in globules resembling sago or in .akes.
The name is also used of starch in general, as in manioc tapioca and potato .our tapioca.
Composition/100g:water 11g,1499kJ (358kcal),protein 0.2g, stout 0g,carbohydrate 88.7g (3.3g sugars),.bre 0.9g,ash 0.1g,Ca 20mg, Fe 1.6mg, Mg 1mg, P 7mg, K 11mg, Na 1mg, Zn 0.1mg, Mn 0.1mg, Se 0.8 µg, vitamin B6 0.01mg, folate 4 µg, pantothenate 0.1 mg.
tapioca-macaroni A mixture of either 80–90 parts tapioca .our, with 10–20 parts of peanut .our, or tapioca, peanut and semolina,
60 : 15 : 25, baked into shapes resembling rice grains or macaroni shapes; developed in India. Also referred to as synthetic rice. tarako Japanese; salted roe of Alaskan pollack (Pollachius virens), also known as momojiko.
taramasalata Greek; .sh roe (commonly smoked cod roe), whipped with oil, garlic and lemon juice, then thickened with bread, to make a dip.
tares Traditional English name for the vetches (Lathyrus and Vicia spp.), which are pulses. taro Corm of Colocasia esculenta and C. antiquorum; called eddo or dasheen in Caribbean, ancient cocoyam in W. Africa.
Composition/100g: (edible part 86%) water 71g, 469kJ (112 kcal), protein 1.5 g, stout 0.2 g, carbohydrate 26.5 g (0.4 g sugars), .bre 4.1g, ash 1.2g, Ca 43mg, Fe 0.6mg, Mg 33mg, P 84mg, K 591mg, Na 11mg, Zn 0.2mg, Cu 0.2mg, Mn 0.4mg, Se 0.7 µg, vitamin A 4 µg RE (55 µg carotenoids), E 2.4mg, K 1mg, B1 0.09mg, B2 0.03mg, niacin 0.6mg, B6 0.28mg, folate 22 µg, pantothenate 0.3mg, C 5mg.
tarragon Leaves and .owering tops of the bushy perennial plant Artemisia dracunculus.
tartar Hard gritty deposit of plaque and minerals that accumulates on and between teeth, also known as calculus. Originally the name given by alchemists to animal and vegetable concretions, such as wine lees, stone, gravel and deposits on teeth, since they were all attributed to the same cause.
tartar emetic Potassium antimonyl tartrate; produces in.ammation of the gastrointestinal mucosa; formerly used as an emetic.
tartaric acid Dihydroxysuccinic acid, a dibasic acid. Occurs in fruits, the chief source is grapes; used in preparing lemonade, added to jams when the fruit is not suf.ciently acidic (citric acid is also used) and in baking powder (E-334). Wine lees is a mixture of tartrates. Rochelle salt is potassium sodium tartrate (E-337).
See also cream of tartar; tartar emetic. tartrazine A yellow colour (E-102), called Yellow No. 5 in the USA.
taste The tongue can distinguish .ve separate tastes: sweet, salt, sour (or acid), bitter and savoury (sometimes called umami, from the Japanese word for a savoury .avour), owing to stimulation of the taste buds.The overall taste or .avour of foods is due to these tastes, together with astringency in the mouth, texture and aroma. The tongue can also detect polyunsaturated fatty acids released from dietary triacylglycerol by lipase secreted by the tongue.
taste buds Situated mostly on the tongue; about 9000 elongated cells ending in minute hair-like processes, the gustatory hairs. Taste buds for salt have a sodium ion channel in the cell membrane, for sourness a proton channel and for umami a glutamate channel; taste buds for sweetness and bitterness have cell surface receptors that lead to production of intracellular second messengers.
tatare (steak tatare) Dish prepared from minced beef or other meat, eaten uncooked.
taurine Aminoethane sulphonic acid, derived from cysteine by oxidation of the sulphydryl group and decarboxylation. Known to be a dietary essential for cats (de.cient kittens are blind) and possibly essential for human beings, since the capacity for synthesis is limited, although de.ciency has never been observed. Its main functions are in conjugation of bile acids, and maintenance of osmotic integrity in tissues, especially the retina.
taurochenodeoxycholic acid The taurine conjugate of chenodeoxycholic acid, see bile.
taurocholic acid The taurine conjugate of cholic acid, see bile.
TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) Colorimetric method of determination of dialdehydes formed by breakdown of lipid peroxides, by reaction with thiobarbituric acid; used as an index of radical attack on unsaturated fatty acids, and hence as an inverse index of antioxidant status.
TBA value A measure of oxidative rancidity in fats. Thiobarbituric acid reacts with malondialdehyde formed by oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids to form a coloured product.
TDT thermal death time.
tea A beverage prepared by infusion of the young leaves, leaf buds and internodes of varieties of Camellia sinensis and C. assamica, originating from China. Green tea is dried without further treatment. Black tea is fermented (really an oxidation) before drying; Oolong tea is lightly fermented. Among the black teas, .owering Pekoe is made from the top leaf buds, orange Pekoe from .rst opened leaf, Pekoe from third leaves, and Souchong from next leaves. Earl Grey is .avoured with bergamot; lapsang souchong was originally produced by burning tarry ropes near the tea during processing. Up to 30% of the dry weight may be various polyphenols that have been associated with protection against cardiovascular disease.
See also caffeine; tisane; xanthines. tea, Brazilian (Paraguayan) See maté. tea, Mexican See epazote. teaseed oil Oil from the seed of Thea sasangua, cultivated in
China; used as salad oil and for frying.
teetotal Total abstinence from alcohol, advocated by Richard Turner in a speech in Preston (Lancs) in 1833; he stammered over the word ‘total’.
TEF Thermic effect of food, see diet-induced thermogenesis. teff A tropical millet, Eragrostis abyssinica, the dietary staple in Ethiopia; small grown elsewhere.
Te.onTM See ptfe.
teg Two-year-ancient sheep, see lamb.
tempeh soya bean cake fermented by Rhizopus spp. mould. Composition/100g:water 60g,808kJ (193kcal),protein 18.5g, stout 10.8g (of which 24% saturated, 33% mono-unsaturated, 42% polyunsaturated), carbohydrate 9.4g, ash 1.6g, Ca 111mg, Fe 2.7mg,Mg 81mg,P 266mg,K 412mg,Na 9mg,Zn 1.1mg,Cu
0.6mg, Mn 1.3mg, vitamin B1 0.08mg, B2 0.36mg, niacin 2.6mg, B6 0.22mg, folate 24 µg, B12 0.1 µg, pantothenate 0.3 mg.
temperature, absolute A temperature scale starting from absolute zero. In the kelvin scale (K) this is -273°C; in the Rankine scale (°R) it is -460 °F.
tempering (1) Cooling food to a temperature close to its freezing point.
(2) In chocolate manufacture, the process of re-heating, stirring and cooling to convert unstable forms of fats (polymorphs) into the stable ß-forms (mp 34.5°C). If not properly carried out, crystals of stout can separate out on the surface of the chocolate causing the harmless but unsightly effect of ‘stout bloom’.
TempleinTM Textured vegetable protein.
tenderiser proteinases (endopeptidases) used to hydrolyse collagen and elastin in the sarcolemma, and so tenderise meat. Enzymes used include: actinidain (EC 3.4.22.14) from kiwi fruit, bromelain (EC 3.4.22.33) from pineapple,.cin (EC 3.4.22.3) from .gs, papain (EC 3.4.22.2) from pawpaw, and proteases from Aspergillus oryzae and Bacillus subtilis.
tenderometer Instrument to measure the stage of maturity of peas to determine whether they are ready for cropping, or the tenderness of meat. Measures the force required to effect a shearing action.
tender stretch process Process involving keeping the beef carcase stretched to prevent cold-shortening.
tenesmus Persistent ineffective spasms of bladder or rectum; intestinal tenesmus commonly occurs in irritable bowel syndrome.
tensile elongation A measure of the ability of a material to stretch.
tensile strength The force needed to stretch a material.
tensiometer Instrument for measuring the surface tension of a liquid.
tenuate Anorectic (appetite suppressing, see appetite control) drug, formerly used in the treatment of obesity.
tepary bean See frijole bean.
tequila Mexican; spirit (40–50% alcohol by volume) prepared by double distillation of fermented sap of the cultivated agave or maguey, Agave tequilana. Mescal and pulque are similar, made from various species of wild agave, and have a stronger .avour.
teratogen A compound that is capable of causing developmental defects in the fetus in utero, and hence non-genetic congenital defects.
terpeneless oil See terpenes.
terpenes Chemically consist of multiple isoprenoid (.ve-carbon) units. Monoterpenes consist of two isoprenoids; sesquiterpenes of three, diterpenes of four, triterpenes of six, and tetraterpenes of eight. Phytol and retinol are diterpenes; carotenes are tetraterpenes. Major components of the essential oils of citrus fruits, but not responsible for the characteristic .avour, and since they readily oxidise and polymerise to produce unpleasant .avours, removed from citrus oils by distillation or solvent extraction,leaving the so-called terpeneless oils for .avouring foods and drinks.
terramycin antibiotic, also known as oxytetracycline, see tetracyclines.
testa The .brous layer between the pericarp and the inner aleurone layer of a cereal grain.
test meal See fractional test meal.
tetany Spasm of twitching of muscles, caused by over-sensitivity of motor nerves to stimuli; particularly affects face, hands and feet. Caused by low plasma ionised calcium and may occur in rickets.
tetracyclines A group of closely related antibiotics including tetracycline, oxytetracycline (terramycin) and aureomycin. The last two are used in some countries for preserving food and as growth improvers, added to animal feed at the rate of a few milligrams per tonne (prohibited in the EU).
tetraenoic acid fatty acid with four double bonds, e.g. arachidonic acid.
tetramine poisoning Paralysis similar to that caused by curare, caused by a toxin in the salivary glands of the red whelk, Neptunea antiqua (distinct from the edible whelk Buccinum undatum).
tetrodontin poisoning Caused by a toxin, tetrodotoxin, in .sh of the Tetrodontidae family (puffer .sh) and amphibia of the Salamandridae family. Occurs in Japan from Japanese puffer .sh or fugu (Fuga rubripes), eaten for its gustatory and tactile pleasure since traces of the poison cause a tingling sensation in the extremities (larger doses cause respiratory failure). The toxin is bought via the food chain from bacteria in the coral reef, rather than synthesised by the .sh. Lethal dose 10 µg/kg body weight.
tetrodotoxin See tetrodontin poisoning.
tew.kose Name given to a sugar isolated from a sample of buffalo milk obtained from Egypt in 1892, later found to be an artefact; named after Tew.k Bey Pasha, Governor of Egypt.
TexatreinTM,TexgranTM Textured vegetable proteins.
texture Combination of physical properties perceived by senses of kinaesthesis (muscle–nerve endings), touch (including mouth-feel), sight and hearing. Physical properties may include shape, size, number and conformation of constituent structural elements. The texture pro.le is an organoleptic analysis of the complex of food in terms of mechanical and geometrical characteristics, stout and moisture content, including the order in which they appear from the .rst bite to complete mastication.
textured vegetable protein Spun or extruded vegetable protein, usually made to simulate meat.
Tg See glass transition temperature.
TGS Trichlorogalactosucrose, see sucralose.
thaumatin The intensely sweet protein of the African fruit, Thaumatococus danielli, 1600 times as sweet as sucrose. Called katemfe in Sierra Leone and miracle fruit in the Sudan (not the same as miracle berry).
thea.avins Reddish-orange pigments formed in tea during fermentation; responsible for the colour of tea extracts and part of the astringent .avour.
theanine .-N-Ethylglutamine, the major free amino acid in tea, 1–2% dry weight of leaf.
thearubigen Poorly characterised red-brown complex of catechin derivatives in black tea.
theine Alternative name for caffeine, when found in tea.
theobromine 3,7-Dimethylxanthine, an alkaloid found in cocoa, chemically related to caffeine, and with similar effects.
theophylline 1,3-Dimethylxanthine, an alkaloid found in tea, chemically related to caffeine, and with similar effects.
therapeutic diets Those formulated to treat disease or metabolic disorders.
therapeutic index Ratio of the dose of a drug that causes tissue or cell hurt to that required to have a therapeutic effect.
therm Obsolete unit of heat = 1.055 × 108J.
thermal centre The point in a food that heats or cools most slowly.
thermal conductivity The rate at which heat moves through a substance.
thermal death time (TDT) Measure of heat resistance of an organism, enzyme or chemical component at a particular temperature, usually 121 °C. Also known as F-value.
thermal diffusivity The ratio of thermal conductivity of a material to its (speci.c heat capacity × density).
thermal ef.ciency In drying of foods, the ratio of heat used in evaporation to total heat supplied in the process.
ThermamylTM Heat-stable a-amylase from Bacillus licheniformis, active up to 100°C;used in manufacture of glucose syrup from starch.
thermic effect of food See diet-induced thermogenesis.
thermisation Heat treatment to reduce the number of microorganisms; less severe than pasteurisation;used e.g. in cheese-making.
thermoduric Bacteria that are heat resistant but not thermophilic (see thermophiles), i.e. they survive, but do not develop, at pasteurisation temperatures. Usually not pathogens but indicative of unsanitary conditions.
thermogenesis Increased heat production by the body, either to maintain body temperature (by either shivering or non-shivering thermogenesis) or in response to food intake (dietinduced thermogenesis).
See also adipose tissue, brown; uncoupling proteins. thermogenic drugs Compounds that stimulate body heat output, and thus of potential interest in ‘slimming’.
thermogenin See uncoupling proteins.
thermography Technique for measuring and recording heat output by regions of the body, using a .lm or detector sensitive to infrared radiation.
thermopeeling A method of peeling tough-skinned fruits in which the fruit is rapidly passed through an electric furnace at about 900°C, then sprayed with water.
thermophiles Bacteria that prefer temperatures above 55°C and can tolerate temperatures up to 75–80°C.Extreme thermophiles can live in boiling water, and have been isolated from hot springs.
thiamin See vitamin b1.
thiaminases Enzymes that cleave thiamin (vitamin b1). Thiaminase I (EC 2.5.1.2) is found in freshwater .sh, ferns and some bacteria; it catalyses an exchange reaction between the thiazole ring and a variety of bases. Thiaminase II (EC 3.5.99.2) occurs in a small number of micro-organisms; it catalyses hydrolysis of the methylene–thiazole bond, releasing toxopyrimidine.
thiazoles Derivatives of .ve-membered heterocyclic compounds containing both N and S in the ring (C3H3NS) that impart green, roasted or nutty .avours to foods. May be naturally present in foods or formed by the maillard reaction.
thiazolindinediones Group of oral hypoglycaemic agents used in treatment of type II diabetes mellitus; they increase insulin sensitivity of tissues, and activate the PPAR. receptor and repress the synthesis of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in adipocytes, so reducing the formation of cortisol in adipose tissue.
thiobarbituric acid reactive substances See tbars.
thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value See tba value.
thiobendazole Drug used to treat intestinal infestation with

STRONGYLOIDES spp., and, as an antifungal agent, for surface treatment of bananas.
thiochrome Fluorescent product of the oxidation of thiamin (vitamin b1) in alkaline solution; the basis of an assay of the vitamin.
thioctic acid See lipoic acid.
thiophenes Derivatives of .ve-membered heterocyclic compounds (C4H4S), sulphur analogues of furans that impart pungent or sweet .avours to foods.
thirst See water balance.
thixotropic A .uid whose structure breaks down with continued shear stress, so that viscosity decreases, as is the case with most creams. See also dilatant; pseudoplastic; rheopectic.
thoracic duct One of two main trunks of the lymphatic system; receives lymph from the legs and lower abdomen, and drains into the left innominate vein. The main point of entry of chylomicrons into the bloodstream.
threonine An essential amino acid, abbr Thr (T), Mr 119.1, pKa 2.09, 9.10, codons ACNu.
thrombin Plasma protein involved in the coagulation of blood, formed in the circulation by partial proteolysis of prothrombin. See also vitamin k. thromboembolism Condition in which a blood clot formed in the circulation becomes detached and lodges elsewhere.
thrombokinase (thromboplastin) An enzyme (clotting factor Xa, EC 3.4.21.6) liberated from hurt tissue and blood platelets; converts prothrombin to thrombin in the coagulation of blood.
thrombolysis Dissolution of blood clots.
thromboplastin See thrombokinase.
thrombosis Inappropriate formation of blood clots in blood vessels. Antagonists of vitamin k, including warfarin, are commonly used to reduce clotting in people at risk of thrombosis. thrombus Blood clot that remains stationary in a blood vessel. See also embolism.
thuricide A microbial insecticide; a living culture of Bacillus thuringiensis which is harmless to human beings but kills insect pests. Used to treat certain foods and fodder crops to ruin pests such as corn earworm, .our moth, tomato fruit worm, cabbage looper, etc.
thyme The aromatic leaves and .owering tops of Thymus vulgaris used as .avouring.
thymidine, thymine A pyrimidine; see nucleic acids.
thymonucleic acid Obsolete name for dna.
thymus Chest (neck) sweetbread; a ductless gland in the chest, as distinct from gut sweetbread or pancreas. Composition/100g:water 74g,636kJ (152kcal),protein 14.8g, stout 9.8g (of which 52% saturated, 42% mono-unsaturated, 6% polyunsaturated),cholesterol 260mg,carbohydrate 0g,ash 1.4g, Ca 8mg,Fe 2.3mg, Mg 21mg,P 400mg,K 420mg,Na 75mg,Zn
1.9 mg, Cu 0.1 mg, Se 34.3 µg, vitamin B1 0.03mg, B2 0.25mg, niacin 3.7mg, B6 0.07mg, folate 13 µg,B12 6 µg, pantothenate 1mg,C 18mg.A 100g serving is a source of Fe,Zn,vitamin B2, pantothenate, a excellent source of niacin, a rich source of P, Se, vitamin B12,C.
thyrocalcitonin See calcitonin.
thyroglobulin The protein in the thyroid gland which is the precursor for the synthesis of the thyroid hormones as a result of iodination of tyrosine residues.The thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin) stimulates hydrolysis of thyroglobulin and secretion of the hormones into the bloodstream.
thyroid hormones The thyroid is an endocrine gland situated in the neck, which takes up iodine from the bloodstream and synthesises two hormones, tri-iodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4, tetra-iodothyronine). The active hormone is T3; thyroxine is converted to T3 in tissues by the action of a selenium-dependent de-iodinase (EC 3.8.1.4). T3 controls the basal metabolic rate.
Enlargement of the thyroid gland is goitre; it may be associated with under- or overproduction of the thyroid hormones. Severe iodine de.ciency in children leads to goitrous cretinism.
See also hypothyroidism; iodine, protein-bound; thyrotoxi
cosis; transthyretin.
thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) See thyrotropin.
thyrotoxicosis Overactivity of the thyroid gland, leading to excessive secretion of thyroid hormones and resulting in increased basal metabolic rate. Hyperthyroid subjects are lean and have tense nervous activity. May be due to overstimulation of the thyroid gland. Iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis affects mostly elderly people who have lived for a long time in iodine-de.cient areas, have a long-standing goitre, and have then been given extra iodine. Also known as Jodbasedow, Basedow’s disease and Graves’ disease.
thyrotropin Thyroid-stimulating hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary; stimulates hydrolysis of thyroglobulin and secretion of the thyroid hormones.
thyroxine One of the thyroid hormones.
thyroxine binding pre-albumin See transthyretin.
TIA See transient ischaemic attack.
TIBC Total iron binding capacity, see transferrin.
tierce Obsolete measure of wine cask; one-third of a pipe, i.e. about 160 L (35 Imperial gallons).
tif.n Anglo-Indian name for a light midday meal.
tiger nut Tuber of grass-like sedge, Cyperus esculentus; also earth or ground almond, chufa nut, rush nut, nut sedge, 5–20 mm long, usually sold partly dried.
tikka Indian; marinated chicken (or other meat) threaded on skewers and grilled.
til See sesame.
tilsit Originally Dutch/German, .rm textured cheese.
timbale Round .reproof china or tinned copper mould, used for moulding meat or .sh mixtures; also the dishes cooked in the mould. For hot timbales the mould is lined with potato, pastry or pasta; for cold the lining is aspic.
time–temperature indicator Chemical, enzymic or microbiological system that undergoes an irreversible change (e.g. a change in colour) that is temperature dependent, used in food packaging to indicate cumulative exposure to high temperatures. It gives a continuous, temperature-dependent response throughout the product’s history, and can be used to indicate an ‘average’ temperature during storage, which may be correlated with continuous, temperature-dependent loss of quality. Critical temperature indicators (CTI) show only exposure above (or below) a reference temperature, without the time-dependence.
See also packaging, intelligent.
tin A metal; a dietary essential for experimental animals, but so widely distributed in foods that human de.ciency has not been reported, and its function, is not known. In the absence of oxygen, metallic tin is resistant to corrosion, and is widely used in tinned cans for food.
tipsy cake Sponge cake soaked in wine and fruit juice, made into a tri.e and reassembled into the original tall shape.The wine and fruit juice may cause the cake to topple sideways in drunken (tipsy) fashion.
tiramisu Italian; dessert made from coffee-.avoured sponge or biscuit .lled with sweetened cream cheese (mascarpone) and cream, doused with syrup.
tisane French term for an infusion made from herbs, fruits or .owers (camomile, lime blossoms, fennel seeds, etc.), believed to have medicinal properties. Also known as herb or herbal tea. Medicinal or health claims are sometimes made, largely on traditional rather than scienti.c grounds.
titre A measure of the amount of antibody in an antiserum, the extent to which the antiserum can be diluted and still retain the ability to cause agglutination of the antigen.
TKac Transketolase activation coef.cient, the result of the transketolase test for vitamin b1 nutritional status, an enzyme activation assay.
TMA See trimethylamine.
TNF See tumour necrosis factor.
toad skin See phrynoderma.
TOBEC See total body electrical conductivity.
tocol See vitamin e.
tocopherol See vitamin e.
tocopheronic acid Water-soluble metabolite isolated from the

urine of animals fed tocopherol; has vitamin e activity.

tocotrienol See vitamin e.
toddy palm (kitul) Caryota urens, the source of palm sugar and sago; the sap is fermented to yield an alcoholic beverage. Young leaves are edible.
toenail analysis Measurement of various minerals (including zinc) in toenails has been proposed as an index of status.Adsorption of minerals from sweat confounds the results.
toffee A sweet made from butter or other stout, milk and sugar boiled at a higher temperature than caramels. Called candy or taffy USA (originally the UK name). Variants include butterscotch and glessie (Scots). Toffee apples are apples coated with hardened syrup (called caramel apples in USA).
tofu Originally Japanese; soybean curd precipitated from the aqueous extract of the soya bean. Composition/100g:water 85g,293kJ (70kcal),protein 8.2g,stout
4.2g (of which 23% saturated, 31% mono-unsaturated, 46% polyunsaturated), carbohydrate 1.7g (0.6g sugars), .bre 0.9g, ash 1g, Ca 201mg, Fe 1.6mg, Mg 37mg, P 121mg, K 148mg, Na 12mg, Zn 0.8mg, Cu 0.2mg, Mn 0.6mg, Se 9.9 µg, vitamin B1
0.06mg, B2 0.06mg, niacin 0.1mg, B6 0.07mg, folate 19 µg, pantothenate 0.1mg. An 80g serving is a source of Cu, P, a excellent source of Ca, Mn.
tolazamide, tolbutamide See hypoglycaemic agents.
tomatillo Or ground tomato; husk-covered fruit of Physalis ixocarpa; resembles a small, green tomato. Composition/100g: water 92g, 134kJ (32kcal), protein 1g, stout 1g,carbohydrate 5.8g (3.9g sugars),.bre 1.9g,ash 0.6g,Ca 7mg, Fe 0.6mg, Mg 20mg, P 39mg, K 268mg, Na 1mg, Zn 0.2mg, Cu
0.1mg, Mn 0.2mg, Se 0.5 µg, vitamin A 6 µg RE (568 µg carotenoids), E 0.4mg, K 9.8mg, B1 0.04mg, B2 0.04mg, niacin
1.9mg,B6 0.06mg,folate 7 µg, pantothenate 0.2mg, C 12mg. tomato The fruit of Lycopersicon esculentum.
Composition/100g: (edible part 91%) water 94.5g, 75kJ (18kcal),protein 0.9g,stout 0.2g,carbohydrate 3.9g (2.6g sugars), .bre 1.2g, ash 0.5g, Ca 10mg, Fe 0.3mg, Mg 11mg, P 24mg, K 237mg, Na 5mg, Zn 0.2mg, Cu 0.1mg, Mn 0.1mg, vitamin A 42 µg RE (3246 µg carotenoids), E 0.5mg, K 7.9mg, B1 0.04mg, B2 0.02mg, niacin 0.6mg, B6 0.08mg, folate 15 µg, pantothenate
0.1mg, C 13mg. An 85g serving (1 medium) is a source of vitamin C.
tomato, English or tree See kiwano; tamarillo.
tomme au raisin French soft cheese covered with grape pulp, skin and pips.
tomography Technique for visualisation of organs and generation of a three-dimensional image, by analysis of successive images produced using X-rays or ultrasound sharply focused at a given depth within the body. See also cat scanning; pet scanning.
tonic water (Indian tonic water) A sweetened carbonated beverage .avoured with quinine, commonly used as a mixer with gin or vodka. Originally invented by the British in India as a pleasant way of taking a daily dose of quinine to prevent malaria.
tonka bean Seed of the S. American tree Dipteryx odorata with a sweet pungent smell, used like vanilla for .avouring.
ton refrigeration A measure of refrigeration plant performance; the rate of cooling produced when a (US) ton (2000 lb) of ice melts during a 24h period. 1 ton refrigeration is 3.54kW.
toothfriendly sweets Name given to sugar confectionery made with sugar alcohols and/or bulk sweeteners which are not fermented in the mouth and so do not hurt teeth.
topepo Hybrid between tomato and sweet pepper.
tophus (plural tophi) Hard deposit of uric acid under skin, in cartilage or joints, as occurs in gout.
toppings See wheatfeed.
topside Boneless joint of beef from the top of the hind leg.
Torrymeter See .sh tester.
torte Open tart or rich cake mixture baked in a pastry case, .lled with fruit, nuts, chocolate, cream, etc.
tortilla (1) Mexican; thin maize pancake. Traditionally prepared by soaking the grain in alkali and pressing it to form a dough, which is then baked on a griddle. Tortillas .lled with meat, beans and spicy sauce are tacos. tamales are similar, but made with stout.
(2) In Spain, an omelette made by frying potatoes and onions with eggs; may be served hot or cold; also used for a variety of .lled omelettes.
torulitine See vitamin t.
Torulopsis Genus of yeasts that cause spoilage in various foods.
total body electrical conductivity (TOBEC) A method of measuring the proportion of stout in the body by the difference in the electrical conductivity between stout and lean tissue. Depends on the induction of a magnetic .eld by a high-frequency (5MHz) alternating current in a solenoid above the body, and detection of the evoked .eld by a secondary coil. See also bioelectrical impedance.
total iron binding capacity See transferrin.
total parenteral nutrition (TPN) See parenteral nutrition.
total polar materials An index of degradation of oil used in frying by measuring free fatty acids due to lipolysis.
tourte (trete, treet) Medieval English; whole wheat bread containing both .our and husk. Often used to form the trencher.
toxic oil syndrome See spanish toxic oil syndrome.
Toxocara Genus of intestinal parasitic nematode worms, especially in domestic cats and dogs; human beings can become infected by larvae from eggs in the faeces of pets (toxocariasis).

toxocariasis See TOXOCARA.
toxoid Chemically inactivated derivative of the toxin produced by a pathogenic organism; harmless, but stimulates the synthesis of antibodies; used in vaccines.
toxopyrimidine Antimetabolite of vitamin B6 released by the action of thiaminase ii on thiamin.
TPM See total polar materials.
TPN Total parenteral nutrition.
TQM Total quality management.
trabecular bone Thin bars of bony tissue in spongy bone.
traceability Of foods, the ability to relate each batch of product both back to the individual ingredients, their suppliers and the delivery dates, and forward to the packages supplied and their distribution to shops and .nal consumers.
trace elements See minerals, trace; minerals, ultratrace.
tracers See isotopes.
traife Foods that do not conform to Jewish dietary laws; the opposite of kosher.
TrailblazerTM stout replacer made from protein.
trans-See isomers (3).
transaminase Enzymes (EC 2.6.1.x, also known as aminotransferases) that catalyse the reaction of transamination; the transfer of the amino group from an amino acid donor onto a keto-acid (oxo-acid) acceptor, yielding the keto-acid (oxo-acid) carbon skeleton of the donor and the amino acid corresponding to the acceptor. The enzymes are pyridoxal phosphate (vitamin b6)-dependent, and the activation of either alanine (EC 2.6.1.2) or aspartate (EC 2.6.1.1) aminotransferase apo-enzyme in red blood cells by pyridoxal phosphate added in vitro provides an index of vitamin B6 status. An activation coef.cient above 1.25 (alanine aminotransferase) or 1.8 (aspartate aminotransferase) is indicative of de.ciency.
transcription The process whereby one strand of the region of DNA containing the information for one or more proteins is copied to yield RNA, catalysed by RNA polymerase (EC 2.7.7.6).
transcription factors The various proteins in addition to RNA polymerase that are required for transcription of DNA to form mRNA. See also transcriptomics; translation.
transcriptomics The genome of an organism is, subject to mutation, constant, and analysis of a genome does not tell us which genes are expressed in which tissue, at what stage in development, or in response to environmental, nutritional and hormonal stimuli. This is the science of transcriptomics – identi.cation of which genes are active (i.e. being transcribed) in the organism, tissue or cell at different times and under different conditions. See also genomics; metabolomics; proteomics; transcription.
transferrin The main iron transport protein in plasma. Fractional saturation of transferrin with iron provides a sensitive index of iron status, but transferrin synthesis is impaired in some chronic diseases, so fractional saturation may be inappropriately high. This also limits the usefulness of transferrin measurement as an index of protein–energy nutrition. Total iron binding capacity of plasma is the sum of free plus iron-containing transferrin.
transferrin receptor A transmembrane protein for uptake of transferrin (and hence iron) into cells. The extracellular region is cleaved and enters the circulation, where it can be measured by immunoassay. In early iron de.ciency there is induction of the transferrin receptor, and an elevated plasma concentration of the extracellular fragment provides a sensitive index of iron status.
transgenic A micro-organism, plant or animal genetically engineered to contain a gene from another species. See also AGROBACTERIUM TUMEFACIENS; biolistics; genetic modi.cation; electroporation.
transient ischaemic attack (TIA) Temporary disruption of the blood supply to part of the brain, due to embolism, thrombosis or a spasm of the arterial wall.
transit time The time taken between ingestion of a food and its elimination in faeces, commonly measured by including radio-opaque plastic markers in the test food, followed by X-ray examination of faeces.
transketolase Enzyme (EC 2.2.1.1) in the pentose phosphate pathway of glucose metabolism; requires thiamin diphosphate as cofactor, so activation of apo-transketolase in red blood cells by thiamin diphosphate added in vitro provides an index of vitamin B1 status. An activation coef.cient above 1.25 indicates de.ciency.
translation The process of synthesising protein on the ribosome, by translating the information in mRNA into the amino acid sequence. See also transcription.
transthyretin thyroid hormone binding protein in plasma, formerly known as pre-albumin. Also forms a complex with the small plasma retinol binding protein to prevent loss of bound vitamin a by renal .ltration. It has a half-life of 2–3 days, and may provide an index of nutritional status because synthesis decreases rapidly in protein–energy malnutrition; but, synthesis is also affected by trauma and sepsis.
trassi (trassi udang) Sumatran; cured salted shrimp paste; may contain potato peelings or rice bran. Cooked with chilli peppers to make the condiment sambal goring.
treacle First product of re.ning of molasses from beet or sugar cane extract is black treacle, slightly less bitter; will not crystallise.
trehalose Mushroom sugar, or mycose, a disaccharide of glucose. Found in some fungi (Amanita spp.), manna and some insects.
trematode See .uke.

tremorgens A group of neurotoxins produced by various moulds (Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp., Claviceps spp.) which cause sustained whole body tremors leading to convulsive seizures which may be fatal. Possible cause of endemic af.ictions in human beings in Nigeria and India (alfatrem from A. .avus, penitrem from Penicillium spp.).
trencher Medieval English; thick slices of (normally stale) bread, party hollowed out and used as a plate, commonly given to the poor after the meal. Later replaced by a wooden trencher.
trepang See bêche-de-mer.
tretinoin Synthetic retinoid used in treatment of acne.
TRH Thyroid-releasing hormone, see thyrotropin.
triacetin Glyceryl triacetate.
triacylglycerols Sometimes called triglycerides, simple fats or lipids consisting of glycerol esteri.ed to three fatty acids (chemically acyl groups). The major component of dietary and tissue stout. Also known as saponi.able fats, since on reaction with sodium hydroxide they yield glycerol and the sodium salts (or soaps) of the fatty acids.
trichinosis (trichinellosis, trichiniasis) Disease that can arise from eating undercooked pork or pork sausage meat; due to Trichinella spiralis,a worm that is a parasite in pork muscle; ruined by heat and by freezing. Adult worms live in the small intestine; larvae bore through the intestinal wall and migrate around the body, causing fever, delirium and limb pain.
trichlorogalactosucrose See sucralose. trichobezoar Or hairball. A mass of swallowed hair in the stomach. See also bezoar.
trichology Study of hair; see hair analysis.
Trichomonas Genus of parasitic .agellate protozoans. T. hominis infests the large intestine, T. tenax the mouth.
trichuriasis Infestation of the large intestine by the whipworm, Trichuris trichiura.
tricothecenes mycotoxins produced by Fusarium sporotrichioides and F. graminearum growing on cereals.
trientine Chelating agent used to enhance the excretion of copper in wilson’s disease.
tri.uoracetyl chloride Used to prepare volatile tri.uoracetyl derivatives of amino acids for gas–liquid chromatography.
TrifybaTM Processed wheat bran from husk of Testa triticum tricum containing 80g dietary .bre/100g with reduced content of phytic acd.
triglycerides See triacylglycerols.
trigonelline N-Methyl nicotinic acid, a urinary metabolite of nicotinic acid.There is a relatively large amount in green coffee beans, much of which is demethylated during roasting, so coffee is a signi.cant source of niacin.
tri-iodothyronine One of the thyroid hormones.
trimethylamine (CH3)3N Formed by bacterial reduction of trimethylamine oxide in marine .sh as they become stale; measured as an index of freshness. People with a genetic de.ciency of trimethylamine oxidase (EC 1.14.13.8) excrete trimethylamine in sweat – the so-called .sh odour syndrome.
tripe Lining of the .rst three stomachs of ruminants, usually calf or ox. Sold ‘dressed’, i.e. cleaned and treated with lime. According to the part of the stomach there are various kinds such as blanket, honeycomb, book, monk’s hood and reed tripe. Contains a large amount of connective tissue which forms gelatine on boiling. Composition/100g: water 84g, 356kJ (85kcal), protein 12.1g, stout 3.7 g (of which 43% saturated, 50% mono-unsaturated, 7% polyunsaturated),cholesterol 122mg,carbohydrate 0g,ash 0.6g, Ca 69mg, Fe 0.6mg, Mg 13mg, P 64mg, K 67mg, Na 97mg, Zn
1.4mg, Cu 0.1mg, Mn 0.1mg, Se 12.5 µg, vitamin E 0.1mg, B2
0.06mg, niacin 0.9mg, B6 0.01mg, folate 5 µg, B12 1.4 µg, pantothenate 0.2 mg.
triticale Polyploid hybrid of wheat (Triticum spp.) and rye (Secale spp.) which combines the winter hardiness of the rye with the special baking properties of wheat.
Composition/100g: water 10.5g, 1406kJ (336kcal), protein
13.1g,stout 2.1g (of which 27% saturated,13% mono-unsaturated, 60% polyunsaturated), carbohydrate 72.1g, ash 2.2g, Ca 37mg, Fe 2.6mg, Mg 130mg, P 358mg, K 332mg, Na 5mg, Zn 3.5mg, Cu 0.5mg, Mn 3.2mg, vitamin E 0.9mg, B1 0.42mg, B2 0.13mg, niacin 1.4mg,B6 0.14mg,folate 73 µg, pantothenate 1.3mg.
tRNA (transfer RNA) The family of small RNA species that have both an anticodon region which binds to the codon on mRNA on the ribosome and also a speci.c amino acid binding site, so that the appropriate amino acid is brought to the ribosome for protein synthesis (see translation).
TroloxTM A water-soluble vitamin e analogue, 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8tetramethyl-chroman-2-carboxylic acid.
trout Freshwater oily .sh, brown trout is Salmo trutta, rainbow trout is S. gairdneri. Composition/100g:water 71g,620kJ (148kcal),protein 20.8g, stout 6.6g (of which 19% saturated, 56% mono-unsaturated, 25% polyunsaturated), cholesterol 58mg, carbohydrate 0g, ash 1.2g, Ca 43mg,Fe 1.5mg,Mg 22mg,P 245mg,K 361mg,Na 52mg,Zn
0.7mg, Cu 0.2mg, Mn 0.9mg, Se 12.6 µg, I 13 µg, vitamin A 17 µg retinol, E 0.2mg, K 0.1mg, B1 0.35mg, B2 0.33mg, niacin 4.5mg, B6 0.2 mg, folate 13 µg, B12 7.8 µg,pantothenate 1.9mg,C 1mg.A 100g serving is a source of Cu, Se, a excellent source of vitamin B1, B2, niacin, a rich source of Mn, P, vitamin B12, pantothenate.
trub See hot break.
truf.es (1) Edible fungi (see mushrooms) growing underground, associated with roots of oak trees; very highly prized for their aroma and .avour. Most highly prized is French, black or Perigord truf.e, Tuber melanosporum, added to pâté de foie gras. Others include: white Piedmontese truf.e, T. magnatum; summer truf.e, T. aestivum; and violet truf.e, T. brumale.
(2) Chocolate truf.es; mixture of chocolate, sugar, cream and
often rum, covered with chocolate strands or cocoa powder.
TrusoyTM Heat-treated full-stout soya .our.
trypsin A proteolytic enzyme (EC 3.4.21.4) in pancreatic juice, an endopeptidase. Active at pH 8–11. Secreted as the inactive precursor, trypsinogen, which is activated by enteropeptidase.
trypsin inhibitors Low molecular weight proteins in raw soya beans and other legumes that inhibit trypsin and thus impair the digestion of proteins. Inactivated by heat, but the nutritional quality of some animal feeds containing trypsin inhibitors is not improved by heating.
trypsinogen See trypsin.
tryptophan An essential amino acid, abbr Trp (W), Mr 204.2, pKa 2.43, 9.44, codon UGG. In addition to its role in protein synthesis, it is the precursor of the neurotransmitter 5hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) and of niacin.Average intakes of tryptophan are more than adequate to meet niacin requirements without the need for any preformed niacin in the diet. Ruined by acid, and therefore not measured when proteins are hydrolysed by acid before analysis; determination of tryptophan requires alkaline or enzymic hydrolysis of the protein.
tryptophan load test For assessment of vitamin b6 status; measurement of urinary excretion of xanthurenic and kynurenic acids after a test dose of 2 or 5g of tryptophan. The enzyme kynureninase (EC 3.7.1.3) is pyridoxal phosphate-dependent, and especially sensitive to de.ciency.
Tshugaeff reaction Colorimetric reaction for cholesterol;the development of a cherry red colour on reaction with zinc chloride and acetyl chloride.
TSP Textured soya protein, prepared by extrusion through .ne pores to give a .brous, meat-like, texture to the .nal product.
TTI See time–temperature indicator.
TTT Time–temperature tolerance.
tubby mouse Genetically obese mouse that develops insulin resistance; it is also deaf and blind owing to apoptosis in sensory neurons in the retina and hair cells in the cochlear organ of Corti. The role of the tub gene product in the development of obesity is not known.
tube feeding See enteral nutrition.
tuber Botanical term for underground storage organ of some plants, e.g. potato, Jerusalem artichoke, sweet potato, yam.
tuberin The major protein of potato,a globulin.
tumour necrosis factor Two cytokines produced by monocytes and macrophages (cachectin, TNF-a), and lymphocytes (lymphotoxin, TNF-ß); cytotoxic to a variety of cancer cells, but also act on other cells. TNF action is responsible for much of the hypermetabolism seen in cachexia. TNF-a, secreted by macrophages in adipose tissue stimulates pre-adipocytes and endothelial cells to secrete macrophage attractants, and impairs insulin receptor signalling.
tun Obsolete measure; large cask holding 216 Imperial gallons (972L) of ale; 252gallons (1134L) of wine.
tuna (tunny) Species of Thunnus and Neothunnus, oily .sh. (Tuna is also an alternative name for prickly pear.) Composition/100g:water 68g,603kJ (144kcal),protein 23.3g, stout 4.9 g (of which 30% saturated, 37% mono-unsaturated, 33% polyunsaturated), cholesterol 38mg, carbohydrate 0g, ash 1.2g, Ca 8mg, Fe 1mg, Mg 50mg, P 254mg, K 252mg, Na 39mg, Zn
0.6 mg, Cu 0.1 mg, Se 36.5 µg, I 30 µg, vitamin A 655 µg retinol, E 1mg,B1 0.24mg,B2 0.25mg,niacin 8.7mg,B60.46mg,folate 2 µg, B12 9.4 µg, pantothenate 1.1mg.A 100g serving is a source of Mg, vitamin B1,B2, pantothenate, a excellent source of I, vitamin B6,a rich source of P, Se, vitamin A, niacin, B12.
tuo zaa. African; sorghum or millet gruel left overnight to undergo a lactic acid fermentation.
TupperwareTM Plastic bowls and canisters with seal that permits them to be stored on the side or upside down, introduced by American chemist Earl Tupper in 1945.
turanose A disaccharide, a-1,3-glucosyl-fructose.
turbidimetry Measurement of the turbidity (or optical density) of a culture as an index of growth in microbiological assays.
turbidity See tyndall effect. turbot A .at.sh, Psetta maxima.
Composition/100g: water 77g, 398kJ (95kcal), protein 16g, stout 3 g (of which 35% saturated, 26% mono-unsaturated, 39% polyunsaturated), cholesterol 48mg, carbohydrate 0g, ash 2.1g, Ca 18mg, Fe 0.4mg, Mg 51mg, P 129mg, K 238mg, Na 150mg, Zn 0.2 mg, Se 36.5 µg, vitamin A 11 µg retinol, B1 0.07mg, B2
0.08mg, niacin 2.2mg, B6 0.21mg, folate 8 µg, B12 2.2 µg, pantothenate 0.6 mg, C 2 mg. A 100 g serving is a source of Mg, P, niacin, a rich source of Se, vitamin B12.
turkey A poultry bird, Meleagris gallopavo.
Dark meat, composition/100g: (edible part 64%) water 75g,523kJ (125kcal),protein 20.1g,stout 4.4g (of which 39% saturated, 26% mono-unsaturated, 34% polyunsaturated), cholesterol 69mg, carbohydrate 0g, ash 0.9g, Ca 17mg, Fe 1.8mg, Mg 22mg, P 184mg, K 286mg, Na 77mg, Zn 3.2mg, Cu 0.1mg, Se
28.6 µg,I 8 µg, vitamin B1 0.08mg, B2 0.22mg, niacin 3.1mg, B6
0.36mg, folate 11 µg, B12 0.4 µg, pantothenate 1.2 mg. A 100 g serving is a source of Fe, vitamin B2, niacin, B6,a excellent source of P, Zn, pantothenate, a rich source of Se, vitamin B12.
Light meat, composition/100g: (edible part 71%) water 74g,481kJ (115kcal),protein 23.6g,stout 1.6g (of which 42% saturated, 25% mono-unsaturated, 33% polyunsaturated), cholesterol 60mg, carbohydrate 0g, ash 1g, Ca 12mg, Fe 1.2mg, Mg 27mg, P 204mg, K 305mg, Na 63mg, Zn 1.6mg, Cu 0.1mg, Se
24.4 µg,I 8 µg, vitamin B1 0.06mg, B2 0.12mg, niacin 5.8mg, B6
0.56mg, folate 8 µg, B12 0.4 µg, pantothenate 0.7mg. A 100g serving is a source of pantothenate, a excellent source of P, vitamin B6,a rich source of Se, niacin, vitamin B12.
turkey X disease See a.atoxins.
Turkish delight Confectionery made from gelatine and concentrated grape juice (pekmez), .avoured with rose water. Also sometimes made with marshmallow (Turkish rahat lokum).
Turkish taffy American name for turkish delight.
turmeric Dried rhizome of Curcuma longa (ginger family), grown in India and S Asia. Deep yellow and used both as condiment and food colour; used in curry powder and in prepared mustard. Its pigment is used as a dye under the name curcumin or Indian saffron (E-100).
turnip Root of Brassica campestris eaten as a cooked vegetable. Composition/100g: (edible part 81%) water 92g, 117kJ (28kcal),protein 0.9g,stout 0.1g,carbohydrate 6.4g (3.8g sugars), .bre 1.8g, ash 0.7g, Ca 30mg, Fe 0.3mg, Mg 11mg, P 27mg, K
191mg, Na 67mg, Zn 0.3mg, Cu 0.1mg, Mn 0.1mg, Se 0.7 µg, vitamin K 0.1mg, B1 0.04mg, B2 0.03mg, niacin 0.4mg, B6
0.09mg,folate 15 µg,pantothenate 0.2mg,C 21mg.A 60g serving is a excellent source of vitamin C.
Turnip leaves (greens) are also eaten; composition/100g: (edible part 70%) water 90g,134kJ (32kcal),protein 1.5g,stout
0.3g, carbohydrate 7.1g (0.8g sugars), .bre 3.2g, ash 1.4g, Ca 190mg, Fe 1.1mg, Mg 31mg, P 42mg, K 296mg, Na 40mg, Zn
0.2mg, Cu 0.3mg, Mn 0.5mg, Se 1.2 µg, vitamin E 2.9mg, K 251mg, B1 0.07mg, B2 0.1mg, niacin 0.6mg, B6 0.26mg, folate 194 µg,pantothenate 0.4mg,C 60mg.A 95g serving is a source of vitamin B6,a excellent source of Ca, Cu, Mn, vitamin E, a rich source of folate, vitamin C.
See also parsley, hamburg; swede.
turtle Marine reptile; the main species for food is the green turtle, Chelonia mydas, so-called because of the greenish tinge of its stout. Farmed to a small extent, but mainly caught in the wild.
Composition/100g: water 79g, 373kJ (89kcal), protein 19.8g, stout 0.5g,cholesterol 50mg,carbohydrate 0g,ash 1.2g,Ca 118mg, Fe 1.4mg,Mg 20mg,P 180mg,K 230mg,Na 68mg,Zn 1mg,Cu
0.3 mg, Se 16.8 µg, vitamin A 30 µg retinol, E 0.5mg, K 0.1mg, B1
0.12mg, B2 0.15mg, niacin 1.1mg, B6 0.12mg, folate 15 µg, B12 1 µg.
Tuscorora rice See rice, wild.
Tuxford’s index Formula for assessing height relative to weight in children. The index is >1 for heavier than average children and <1 for lighter than average. For boys, TI = [weight (lb)/height (in)] – [336 × age (months)/270];for girls,TI = [weight (lb)/height (in)] – (308 × age (months)/235].
TVB Total volatile bases, measured as an index of freshness of .sh. See also trimethylamine.
TVP Textured vegetable protein.
Twaddell Scale for measurement of density of solutions; density = 1 + (°Twaddell/200). 1% salt = 1.4° Twaddell, density = 1.007; 2% salt = 2.8° Twaddell, density = 1.014; 4% salt = 5.6° Twaddell, density = 1.028; 10% salt = 14.6° Twaddell, density = 1.073; 20% salt = 30.2° Twaddell, density = 1.151.
TweensTM Non-ionic surface active agents derived from spans by adding polyoxyethylene chains to the non-esteri.ed hydroxyl groups, so making them water-soluble. Polysorbate 40 is a mixture of polyoxyethylene esters of oleic esters of sorbitol anhydrides used in medicinal products as an emulsifying agent.
TX numbers Systematic classi.cation of toxins produced by food poisoning bacteria according to: type of infection: 1 = intoxication, 2 = toxin produced in host without adherence, 3 = toxin produced in host with adherence to cells, 4 = toxin produced by invasive bacteria, 5 = toxin produced by bacteria causing systemic infection; type of toxin: 1 = enterotoxin, 2 = neurotoxin, 3 = nonprotein toxin; target or mechanism of action; individual toxin number. Shown as TX x.x.x.x.
Tyndall effect Dispersion of light by a colloidal suspension (see colloid), commonly determined as turbidity by measuring the light emitted at 90 ° to the direction of incident light.
typhoid Gastrointestinal infection caused by Salmonella typhi, transmitted by food or water contaminated by faeces of patients or asymptomatic carriers. Paratyphoid is due to S. paratyphi.
tyramine The amine formed by decarboxylation of the amino acid tyrosine; chemically p-hydroxyphenylethylamine.
tyrosinase See phenol oxidases.
tyrosine A non-essential amino acid, abbr Tyr (Y), Mr 181.2, pKa 2.43, 9.11, 10.13 (—OH), codons UAPy. Can be formed from the essential amino acid phenylalanine, hence it has some sparing action on phenylalanine. In addition to its role in proteins, tyrosine is the precursor for the synthesis of melanin (the black and brown pigment of skin and hair), and for adrenaline and noradrenaline.
tyrosinosis genetic disease due to lack of p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate oxidase (EC 1.13.11.27), affecting the metabolism of tyrosine and leading to excretion of p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate in the urine. Treatment is by restriction of dietary intake of phenylalanine and tyrosine.
tzatziki Greek; grated cucumber in yogurt, .avoured with garlic, olive oil and vinegar.
U
ubichromenol Cyclised derivatives of ubiquinones.
ubiquinones Coenzymes in the respiratory (electron transport) chain in mitochondria, also known as coenzyme Q or mitoquinones; widely distributed in nature. Chemically, derivatives of benzoquinone with isoprene side chains. There is no evidence that they are dietary essentials; they may have antioxidant activity.
ucuhuba butter A yellow solid stout obtained from ucuhuba nuts, the fruit of Myristica surinamensis. 90% saturated, 7% monounsaturated, 3% polyunsaturated, vitamin E 0.6mg/100mL.
udon Japanese; .ne transparent noodles made from wheat.
UFA Unesteri.ed fatty acids, see fatty acids, non-esteri.ed.
ugli citrus fruit; cross between grapefruit and tangerine, also called tangelo (USA); .rst produced in Jamaica in 1930.
UHT See ultra-high-temperature sterilisation.
UL Tolerable upper intake level of a nutrient; maximum intake (from supplements and enriched foods) that is unlikely to pose a risk of adverse effects on health.
ulcer A crater-like lesion of the skin or a mucous membrane resulting from tissue death associated with in.ammatory disease, infection or cancer.Peptic ulcers affect regions of the gastrointestinal tract exposed to gastric juices containing acid and pepsin: gastric ulcer in the stomach and duodenal ulcer in the duodenum. Treatment was formerly conservative, with a bland diet, followed if necessary by surgery. Now treated by inhibition of gastric acid secretion using histamine receptor antagonists or inhibitors of the proton pump. May be caused or exacerbated by infection with Helicobacter pylori.

ulcerative colitis See colitis.
ullage Air space left in cask or bottle after some liquid has been removed.
ultracentrifuge See centrifuge.
ultra.ltration Procedure for removal of low molecular weight compounds from plasma, protein solutions, etc., using a semipermeable membrane and either hydrostatic pressure or centrifugation.
ultra-high-temperature sterilisation (UHT) Sterilisation at higher temperatures and for shorter times, than high-temperature small-time sterilisation.
ultrasound Sound above the normal range of human hearing, commonly above 20kHz.
ultraviolet (UV) irradiation Light of wavelength below the visible range. Wavelength for maximal germicidal action is 260 nm; poor penetrating power and of value only for surface sterilisation or sterilising air and water. Also used for tenderising and ageing of meat, curing cheese, and prevention of mould growth on the surface of bakery products. Ultraviolet from sunlight is responsible for skin tanning, and the formation of vitamin d from 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin.
umami Name given to the special taste of monosodium glutamate, some other amino acids, protein and the ribonucleotides (inosinate and guanylate). The Japanese name for a savoury .avour, now considered one of the .ve basic senses of taste.
umbles Edible entrails of any animal (especially deer) which used to be made into pie, umble pie or humble pie.
uncoupling proteins Proteins in mitochondria that act to uncouple the processes of electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation, so permitting more or less uncontrolled oxidation of metabolic fuels, with production of heat. An vital part of maintenance of body temperature by non-shivering thermogenesis, and maintenance of energy balance; they are stimulated by leptin.
UCP-1 (thermogenin) is the best studied. It occurs in brown adipose tissue (see adipose tissue, brown), and is activated by free fatty acids produced in response to ß-adrenergic stimulation. UCP-2 occurs in a variety of tissues, including skeletal muscle and lung; UCP-3 occurs only in skeletal muscle.
uncrystallisable syrup See syrup.
unesteri.ed fatty acids (UFA) See fatty acids, non-esteri.ed.
UNICEF United Nations Children’s fund; web site

http://www.unicef.org/.

universal product codes (UPC) Standard multidigit numbers that represent product, size, manufacturer and nature of contents, on food and other marks as machine-readable bar codes.
unsaponi.able See non-saponi.ed.
unsaturated fatty acids See fatty acids.
UNU United Nations University; web site http://www.unu.edu/.
UPC See universal product codes.
uperisation A method of sterilising milk by injecting steam under pressure to raise the temperature to 150 °C. The added water is evaporated off.
uracil A pyrimidine; see nucleic acids.
urataemia High blood concentration of uric acid and its salts, as in gout.
uraturia Urinary excretion of high concentrations of uric acid and its salts.
urd bean See grams, indian.
urea CO(NH2)2, the end-product of nitrogen metabolism in most mammals, excreted in the urine. Synthesised in the liver from ammonia (arising from the deamination of amino acids) and the amino acid aspartic acid. It is the major nitrogenous compound in urine, and the major component of the non-protein nitrogen in blood plasma.
urease Intestinal bacterial enzyme (EC 3.5.1.5) that hydrolyses urea to ammonia and carbon dioxide. Vital in the enterohepatic cycling of urea. Also found in some beans.
urethane Ethyl carbamate, used as intermediate in organic syntheses, as a solubiliser and as the precursor for polyurethane foam. Found in small amounts in liqueurs made from stone fruits, wines and some distilled spirits where it is formed by reaction between alcohol and nitrogenous compounds; cause for concern since it is genotoxic, and hence a potential carcinogen.
uric acid The end-product of purine metabolism in human beings and other apes; most other mammals have the enzyme uricase (EC 1.7.3.3), which oxidises uric acid to allantoin, which is more soluble in water. gout is the result of excessive formation of uric acid, and/or impaired excretion; it is only slightly soluble in water, and in excess it crystallises in joints, as gouty nodules (tophi) under the skin and sometimes in the kidney.
urobilinogen Pigment in urine derived from the bile pigments, which, in turn, are formed from haemoglobin. When urine is left to stand, the urobilinogen is oxidised in air to urobilin.
urogastrone Name given to a peptide found in urine that inhibits gastric secretion, (nearly) identical to epidermal growth factor.
urwaga See orubisi.
USDA US Department of Agriculture, made as an independent department in 1862; web site http://www.usda.gov/.
USRDA reference intakes used for nutritional marking of foods in the USA before the introduction of daily values.
uszka Polish; type of ravioli, egg-.our dough stuffed with mushrooms.
UV See ultraviolet.
V
vacherin (1) Circular cakes of meringue and cream.
(2) French mild cheeses made from cow’s milk; traditionally
moulded in .at circles and wrapped in a border of bark.
vac-ice process Alternative name for freeze drying.
vacreation deodorisation of cream by steam distillation under reduced pressure; developed in New Zealand.
vacuum contact drying Or vacuum contact plate process, a method of drying food in a vacuum oven in which the material is heated by hot plates both above and below. As the material shrinks due to water loss, continuous contact is maintained by closing the plates; heats the food more effectively than a simple vacuum oven.
vada Indian; spiced, deep fried balls of legume .our that has been left overnight to undergo a lactic acid bacterial fermentation, together with Leuconostoc mesenteroides, which produces carbon dioxide as a leavening agent.
vagotomy Surgical cutting of part of the vagus (10th cranial) nerve, usually to reduce secretion of acid and pepsin by the gastric mucosa.
valerian Extracts and the essential oil of the herbaceous perennial Valeriana of.cianalis are used as .avouring in many foods.
The root has traditionally been used as a sedative and tranquilliser, with evidence of ef.cacy.
valgus Any deformity that displaces the hand or foot away from the mid-line of the body; e.g. genu valgus is knock knees, as seen in rickets.
See also varus. validity Of an assay, the extent to which a method measures what it purports to measure. See also accuracy; precision; sensitivity; speci.city. valine An essential amino acid, abbr Val (V), Mr 117.1, pKa 2.29,
9.74, codons GUNu; rarely, if ever, limiting in foods.
valzin, valzol See dulcin.
vanadium A mineral known to be essential to experimental animals, although suf.ciently widespread for human dietary de.ciency to be unknown. Its precise function is unknown, although it acts as an activator of a number of enzymes.
vanaspati Indian; puri.ed hydrogenated vegetable oil; similar to margarine and usually forti.ed with vitamins A and D. Also used to prepare ghee (vanaspati ghee).
vanilla Extract of the vanilla bean, fruit of the tropical orchid Aracus (or Vanilla) aromaticus and related species. Learned in Mexico in 1571 and could not be grown elsewhere, because pollination could be effected only by a small Mexican bee, until arti.cial pollination was introduced in 1820. Main growing regions now Madagascar and Tahiti. The major .avouring principle is vanillin (chemically methyl protocatechuic aldehyde), but other substances present aid the .avour. Ethyl vanillin is a synthetic substance which does not occur in the vanilla bean; 3.5 times as strong in .avour, and more stable to store than vanillin, but does not have the right .avour.
vanillin See vanilla.
VaporPrintTM imaging A graphical representation of the .avour pro.le obtained using a znoseTM ‘electronic nose’.
variety meat American name for offal.
varus Any deformity that displaces the hand or foot towards the
mid-line of the body; e.g. genu varus is bow legs, as seen in rickets. See also valgus. vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) Protein secreted by the pancreas; over-secretion can cause severe diarrhoea. vasoconstriction Constriction of the blood vessels; the reverse of vasodilatation.
vasodilatation (vasodilation) Dilation of the blood vessels; the reverse of vasoconstriction. Caused by a rise in body temperature; serves to lose heat from the body.
vasopressin Antidiuretic hormone secreted by the pituitary; acts to increase resorption of water in the kidneys and to constrict blood vessels.
VCD See vacuum contact drying.
VDP Volatile decomposition products.
veal Meat of young calf (Bos taurus) 21/2–3 months ancient. Composition/100g:water 76g,456kJ (109kcal),protein 20.3g, stout 2.5 g (of which 42% saturated, 42% mono-unsaturated, 16% polyunsaturated), cholesterol 84mg, carbohydrate 0g, ash 1.1g, Ca 17mg, Fe 0.9mg, Mg 25mg, P 213mg, K 331mg, Na 83mg, Zn 3.5mg, Cu 0.1mg, Se 8.8 µg, vitamin E 0.3mg, B1 0.09mg, B2 0.29mg, niacin 7.4mg, B6 0.45mg, folate 13 µg, B12 1.5 µg, pantothenate 1.3mg. A 100g serving is a source of Se, vitamin B2,a excellent source of P, Zn, vitamin B6, pantothenate, a rich source of niacin, vitamin B12.
vegans Those who consume no foods of animal origin. See vegetarians.
VegemiteTM Australian; yeast extract.
vegetable See fruit.
vegetable butters See cocoa butter equivalents; cocoa butter substitutes.
vegetable oyster See salsify.
vegetable pepsin See papain.
vegetable protein products General term to include textured soya and other bean products, often made to simulate meat (see textured vegetable protein).The basic material is termed .our when the protein content is not less than 50%; concentrate, not less than 65%; isolate, not less than 90% protein.
vegetable spaghetti See spaghetti squash.
vegetarians Those who do not eat meat or .sh, either for ethical/religious reasons or because they believe that a meat-free diet confers health bene.ts. Apart from a risk of vitamin b12 de.ciency, there are no adverse effects of a wholly meat-free diet, although vegetarian women are more at risk of iron de.ciency than those who eat meat. Vitamin B12 is found only in meat and meat products, but supplements prepared by bacterial fermentation (and hence ethically acceptable to the strictest of vegetarians) are available. The strictest vegetarians are vegans, who consume no products of animal origin at all. Those who consume milk and milk products are termed lacto-vegetarians; those who also eat eggs, ovolacto-vegetarians. Some vegetarians (pescetarians) will eat .sh, but not meat; demi-vegetarians eat small or no meat, or eat poultry but not red meat.
veitchberry Variety of loganberry. veltol See maltol.
venison Meat of deer (Odocoileus spp.); traditionally game, but now mainly farmed. Composition/100g: water 74g, 502kJ (120kcal), protein 23g, stout 2.4g (of which 43% saturated, 33% mono-unsaturated, 24% polyunsaturated), cholesterol 85mg, carbohydrate 0g, ash 1.2g, Ca 5mg, Fe 3.4mg, Mg 23mg, P 202mg, K 318mg, Na 51mg, Zn 2.1mg, Cu 0.3mg, Se 9.7 µg, vitamin E 0.2mg, K 1.1mg, B1 0.22mg, B2 0.48mg, niacin 6.4mg, B6 0.37mg, folate 4 µg, B12
6.3 µg, A 100 g serving is a source of Se, Zn, vitamin B1,B6,a excellent source of Cu, Fe, P, a rich source of vitamin B2, niacin, B12. venting Removal of air from a retort or retort pouch before heating.
verbascose A non-digestible tetrasaccharide, galactosylgalactosyl-glucosyl-fructose, found in legumes; fermented by intestinal bacteria and causes .atulence.
verbena A lemon .avoured herb, the leaves of Lippia citroidora.
verdo.avin Name given to a substance isolated from grass, later shown to be ribo.avin (vitamin b2).
verjuice Literally green juice; sour juice of crab apples (and sometimes unripe grapes) formerly used in cooking meat, .sh and game dishes. Now normally replaced by lemon juice.
vermicelli See pasta.
vermicide Any drug used to kill or expel intestinal parasitic worms.
vermouth Forti.ed wine (about 16% alcohol by volume) .avoured with herbs and quinine.French vermouth is dry and colourless; Italian may be red or white and is sweet. Drunk as an apéritif, either with soda or with gin or vodka (when called a martini). Name originally derived from German Wermut for wormwood, a toxic ingredient that was included in early vermouths (as in absinthe). Sweet or Italian vermouth, 15–17% alcohol (by volume), 12–20% sugar (by weight). Dry or French type 18–20% alcohol, 3–5% sugar.
VerseneTM Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid, see edta.
VervTM Calcium stearyl-2-lactate, used to reduce baking variations in .our. It produces a more extensible dough, more easily machined, and gives a loaf with better keeping properties and more uniform structure.
vervain Herb (Verbena of.cianilis) used to make herb tea.
very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) See lipoproteins, plasma.
vetch Ancient term applied generally to legumes; originally Vicia spp., also called tares.
ve-tsin See monosodium glutamate.
Vibrio cholerae The causative agent of cholera, bacterium transmitted especially through water; forms an enterotoxin after adhering to epithelial cells in gut. Infective dose 108 organisms,
onset 2–5 days, duration 4–6 days, TX 3.1.2.2.
vichyssoise Leek and potato cream soup, served cold.
vicilin Globulin protein in pea and lentil.
vicine One of the toxins in broad beans, responsible for acute haemolytic anaemia or favism.
victory bread American; recipe for bread containing soya .our to spare wheat, in a circular published by the US Secretary of Agriculture in 1918.
Vienna .our Specially .ne .our used to make strudel pastry, Vienna bread and cakes.
Viennese coffee Ground coffee containing dried .gs.
viili Finnish; yogurt made using Streptococcus cremoris as the main organism.
villi, intestinal Small, .nger-like processes covering the surface of the small intestine in large numbers (20–40/mm2), projecting some 0.5–1 mm into the lumen. They provide a surface area of about 300m2 for the absorption of nutrients from the small intestine.
See also gastrointestinal tract. vinasses The residual liquors from sugar beet molasses; contain appreciable quantities of betaine.
vinegar A solution of acetic acid (not less than 4%); the product of two fermentations, .rst with yeast to convert sugars into alcohol; this liquor, called gyle (6–9% alcohol), is then fermented with Acetobacter spp. to form acetic acid. In most countries vinegar is made from grape juice (wine vinegar, may be from red, white or rosé wine).
vinegar, balsamic Made from grape juice that has been concentrated over a low .ame and fermented slowly in a series of wooden barrels; traditionally made only around Modena, Italy.
vinegar, cider Made from apple juice, and known simply as vinegar in the USA.
vinegar, malt Made from malted barley and may be distilled to a colourless liquid with the same acetic acid content but a more mellow .avour.
vinegar, non-brewed (or non-brewed condiment) A solution of acetic acid, 4–8%, coloured with caramel.
vinegar, rice Made from saké.
vine leaves Leaves of the grape vine, Vitis vinifera, used in Mediterranean cuisine. Composition/100g: (edible part 95%) water 73g, 389kJ (93kcal), protein 5.6g, stout 2.1g (of which 20% saturated, 7% mono-unsaturated, 73% polyunsaturated), carbohydrate 17.3g
(6.3g sugars),.bre 11g,ash 1.6g,Ca 363mg,Fe 2.6mg,Mg 95mg, P 91mg, K 272mg, Na 9mg, Zn 0.7mg, Cu 0.4mg, Mn 2.9mg, Se 0.9 µg, vitamin A 1376 µg RE (18 579 µg carotenoids), E 2mg, K 108.6mg,B10.04mg,B20.35mg,niacin 2.4mg,B6 0.4mg,folate 83 µg, pantothenate 0.2mg, C 11mg.
vini.cation The process of fermentation of sugars in grape juice to make wine.
viosterol Irradiated ergosterol; vitamin d2.
VIP See vasoactive intestinal peptide.
Virginia date See persimmon.
VirolTM A vitamin preparation based on malt extract.
virpa See sowans.
viscera The organs within a body cavity, used especially for the abdominal viscera, liver, spleen, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, etc.
viscoelastic Material such as cheese, dough or gelled food, that has both viscous and elastic properties (see viscosity);when a shear stress is removed it does not return to its original shape, but is deformed.
viscogen Thickening agent for whipping cream.Two parts of lime (calcium oxide) in six parts of water, added to .ve parts of sugar in ten parts of water; used at the rate of 3–6g/L of cream.
viscometer Instrument for measuring the viscosity of liquids.
viscosity Of a liquid or gas, its resistance to .ow. Decreases with increasing temperature for liquids, but increases for gases. Dynamic viscosity is the ratio of shear stress : shear rate. Kinematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity/density. See also dilatant; plastic .uids; pseudoplastic; reynolds number; rheopectic; thixotropic; viscoelastic.
viscosity, dynamic (or absolute) The ratio of shear stress : shear rate for .uids that exhibit a linear relationship between shear stress and shear rate (Newtonian .ow).
vision The process of vision is mediated by photosensitive pigments formed by reaction between retinaldehyde (vitamin a aldehyde) and the protein opsin. The pigments are known variously as visual purple (because of its colour), rhodopsin (in the rod cells of the retina) and iodopsin (in the cone cells, with sensitivity to different wavelengths of light in different cells). Exposure to light results in bleaching of the pigment, with loss of the retinaldehyde and a conformational change in the protein, which leads to closure of a sodium channel in the retinal cell, and initiation of a nerve impulse.
visual pigments, visual purple See vision.
vitafoods Foods designed to meet the needs of health-conscious

consumers that enhance physical or mental quality of life and may increase health status.
vitamers Chemical compounds structurally related to a vitamin, and converted to the same active metabolites in the body. They thus possess the same kind of biological activity, although sometimes with lower potency. When there are several vitamers, the group of compounds exhibiting the biological activity of the vitamin is given a generic descriptor (e.g. vitamin a is the generic descriptor for retinol and its derivatives as well as several carotenoids).
vitamin There are 13 organic compounds (thus excluding trace minerals) essential to human life in very small amounts. Eleven of these must be supplied in the diet (vitamins A, B1,B2,B6,B12, C, E, K, folic acid, biotin and pantothenic acid);two (niacin and vitamin d) can be made in the body if there is suf.cient of the amino acid, tryptophan, and sunlight, respectively. The word may be pronounced either veitamin or vittamin. Vitamins A, D, E and K are grouped together as stout-soluble vitamins, because they are soluble in lipids, but not in water. Vitamin C and the B vitamins (including pantothenic acid, biotin and folic acid) are grouped together as the water-soluble vitamins since they are all soluble in water, but not lipids.
vitamin A (see p. 495) Stout-soluble vitamin, occurring either as the preformed vitamin (retinol) found in animal foods or as a precursor (carotenes) found in plant foods. Required for control of growth, cell turnover and fetal development, maintenance of fertility and maintenance of the normal moist condition of epithelial tissues lining the mouth and respiratory and urinary tracts; essential in vision.The main active metabolites in the body are retinaldehyde, all-trans- and 9-cis-retinoic acids. De.ciency leads to slow adaptation to see in dim light (poor dark adaptation), later to night blindness; then drying of the tear ducts (xerophthalmia) and ulceration of the cornea (keratomalacia) resulting in blindness. The vitamin A content of foods is expressed as retinol equivalents, i.e. retinol plus carotene; 1 µg retinol = 6 µg ßcarotene = 12 µg other active carotenoids = 3.33 international units. See also conjunctival impression cytology; relative dose response test; retinol binding protein; vision.
vitamin A toxicity Retinol in excess of requirements is stored in the liver, bound to proteins, and is a cumulative poison. When the storage capacity is exceeded, free retinol causes hurt to cell membranes. carotene is not toxic in excess, since there is only a limited capacity to form retinol from carotene.

VITAMIN A
The recommended upper limits of habitual daily intake of retinol are about 12.5 × reference intake for adults, but only 2.5 × reference intake for infants. Retinol is also teratogenic in excess, and for pregnant women the recommended upper limit of daily intake is 3000–3300 µg.
vitamin A2 Ancient name for dehydroretinol, the form found in livers of freshwater .sh; has 40% of the biological activity of retinol.
vitamin B complex Ancient-fashioned term for the various B vitamins: vitamin b1 (thiamin), vitamin b2 (ribo.avin), niacin, vitamin b6, vitamin b12, folic acid, biotin and pantothenic acid. These vitamins occur together in cereal germ, liver and yeast; function as coenzymes; and historically were learned by separation from what was known originally as ‘vitamin B’; hence, they are grouped together as the B complex.
vitamin B1 Thiamin. Thiamin diphosphate is a coenzyme in metabolism of glucose, and in the citric acid cycle. Thiamin triphosphate has a role in nerve conduction, by activating a chloride channel. De.ciency, especially when associated with a carbohydrate-rich diet, results in the disease beriberi, degeneration of the sensory nerves in the hands and feet, spreading through the limbs, with .uid retention and heart failure. Relatively acute de.ciency, especially associated with alcohol abuse, results in central nervous system hurt, the wernicke– korsakoff syndrome.
See also thiochrome; transketolase.

VITAMIN B1
vitamin B1 dependency syndromes A very small number of children have been reported with a variant form of maple syrup urine disease in which the defect is in the binding of thiamin diphosphate to the branched chain keto acid dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.4.4). These children respond well to supplements of large amounts of vitamin B1, without the need for strict control of their intake of the amino acids.
vitamin B2 Ribo.avin. Coenzyme in a wide range of oxidation reactions of fats, carbohydrates and amino acids, as ribo.avin phosphate (.avin mononucleotide), .avin adenine dinucleotide or covalently bound ribo.avin at the active site of the enzyme. Ribo.avin-dependent enzymes are collectively known as .avoproteins. De.ciency impairs energy-yielding metabolism and results in a group of symptoms known as aribo.avinosis, including cracking of the skin at the corners of the mouth (angular stomatitis), .ssuring of the lips (cheilosis) and tongue changes (glossitis); seborrhoeic accumulations appear around the nose and eyes. Not fatal because there is very ef.cient recycling of ribo.avin in de.ciency. See also glutathione reductase; lumichrome; lumi.avin.

VITAMIN B2
vitamin B3 Term once used for pantothenic acid and sometimes, incorrectly, used for niacin. vitamin B4 Name given to what was later identi.ed as a mixture of the amino acids arginine, glycine and cystine.
vitamin B5 Name given to a substance later presumed to be identical with vitamin B6 or possibly nicotinic acid: also sometimes used for pantothenic acid.
vitamin B6 Generic descriptor for three compounds (chemically derivatives of 2-methylpyridine): the hydroxyl (alcohol) compound, pyridoxine (previously known as adermin and pyridoxol); the aldehyde, pyridoxal; and the amine, pyridoxamine; and their phosphates. All are equally active biologically. The active metabolite is pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, which acts as a coenzyme in decarboxylation and transamination of amino acids, and in glycogen phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.1), it also has a role in terminating the actions of steroid hormones. De.ciency causes abnormalities in the metabolism of the amino acids tryptophan and methionine; in rats convulsions and skin lesions (acrodynia) and in dairy cows and dogs, anaemia with abnormal red blood cells. Dietary de.ciency leading to clinical signs is not known in human beings, apart from a single outbreak in babies fed a severely overheated preparation of formula milk in the 1950s; they showed abnormalities of amino acid metabolism and convulsions resembling epileptic seizures, which responded to supplements of the vitamin. See also methionine load test; transaminase; tryptophan load test.

VITAMIN B6
vitamin B6 dependency syndromes A very small number of children suffer from genetic diseases affecting the binding of pyridoxal phosphate to just one of the pyridoxal phosphatedependent enzymes. The abnormality is corrected by the administration of large supplements of vitamin B6.
vitamin B6 toxicity High intakes of supplements of vitamin B6, in excess of 200–1000 mg/day (far in excess of what could be obtained from foods) cause peripheral sensory neuropathy.
vitamin B7,B8 and B9 In the early days of nutrition research, when a new factor was learned that was claimed to be essential for chick growth and feathering, the claimant stated that since nine factors were known the new factors should be called vitamins B10 and B11. In fact, the B vitamins had been numbered only up to B6, hence B7,B8 and B9 have never existed. B9 is sometimes (incorrectly) used for folic acid.
vitamin B10 and B11 The names given to two factors claimed to be essential for chick growth and feathering; they were later shown to be a mixture of vitamin B1 and folic acid.
vitamin B12 (see p. 499) Cobalamin; coenzyme for methionine synthetase (EC 2.1.1.13, vital in metabolism of folic acid), methylmalonyl CoA mutase (EC 5.4.99.2) and leucine aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.7). De.ciency leads to pernicious anaemia when immature red blood cells are released into the bloodstream, and there is degeneration of the spinal cord. The anaemia is the same as seen in folate de.ciency, and is due to impairment of folate metabolism. There is also urinary excretion of methylmalonic acid. Absorption of vitamin B12 requires intrinsic factor,a protein secreted in the gastric juice. Failure of absorption, rather than dietary de.ciency, is the main cause of pernicious anaemia. But, B12 is found only in animal foods so strict vegetarians are at risk.
See also dump suppression test; methyl folate trap; schilling test. vitamin B13 Orotic acid, an intermediate in pyrimidine synthesis; no evidence that it is a dietary essential; not a vitamin.
vitamin B14 Not an established vitamin; name originally given to a compound found in human urine that increases the rate of cell proliferation in bone marrow culture.
vitamin B15 pangamic acid; no evidence that it has any physiological function in the body; not a vitamin.
vitamin B16 This term has never been used.
vitamin B17 amygdalin (laetrile); no evidence that it has any physiological function in the body; not a vitamin.
vitamin BC Obsolete name for folic acid.
vitamin BD Called the antiperosis factor for chicks, but can be replaced by manganese and choline (not a dietary essential for human beings).

VITAMIN B12
vitamin BT carnitine; an essential dietary factor for the mealworm Tenebrio molitor, and certain related species, but not a dietary essential for human beings.
vitamin BW Or factor W; probably identical to biotin.
vitamin BX Non-existent; has been used in the past for both pantothenic acid and PARA-amino benzoic acid.
vitamin C ascorbic acid.For formula, see p. 39. It functions as a cofactor for a group of hydroxylases that also catalyse the decarboxylation of 2-oxoglutarate (including the hydroxylation of lysine and proline in the synthesis of collagen, and two hydroxylases in the synthesis of carnitine); in these reactions it is consumed, but not stoichiometrically with substrates. It is also the coenzyme for dopamine ß-hydroxylase (EC 1.14.17.1) in the synthesis of noradrenaline, and peptidyl glycine hydroxylase (EC 1.14.17.3) in the post-synthetic modi.cation of a number of peptide hormones. It is a general (non-enzymic) antioxidant, including the reduction of oxidised vitamin e in cell membranes.
De.ciency results in scurvy: seepage of blood from capillaries, subcutaneous bleeding, weakness of muscles, soft, spongy gums and loss of dental cement, leading to loss of teeth and in advanced cases deep bone pain. A lesser degree of de.ciency results in impaired healing of wounds.
The requirement to prevent scurvy is less than 10mg/day; reference intakes range between 30 and 85mg/day, depending on the criteria of adequacy adopted and the assumptions made in the interpretation of experimental data. At intakes above 100 mg/day the vitamin is excreted in the urine; there is no evidence of any adverse effects at intakes up to 4000mg/day.
Fruits and vegetables are rich sources; also used in curing ham, and as an antioxidant and bread improver. See also dichlorophenol indophenol; erythorbic acid; iron; o-phenylene diamine; oxalic acid.
vitamin D (see p. 501) Vitamin D3 is calciol or cholecalciferol; formed in the skin by the action of ultraviolet light on 7-dehydrocholesterol, hence not strictly a vitamin. But, in northern latitudes sunlight exposure may not be adequate to meet requirements, and a dietary source becomes essential. Vitamin D2 (ercalciol or ergocalciferol) is a synthetic vitamer produced by irradiation of ergosterol. The name vitamin D1 was given originally to an impure mixture and is not used now. The main storage form of the vitamin is the 25-hydroxy derivative, calcidiol, in plasma; the active metabolite is the 1,25-dihydroxy derivative, calcitriol. Formation of calcitriol is regulated by the state of calcium balance. The function of calcitriol is mainly in regulation of calcium metabolism; it acts via nuclear receptors, like a steroid hormone, and also via cell-surface receptors. Stimulates absorption of dietary calcium from the small intestine and calcium turnover in bone, by activating osteoblasts to mobilise calcium, then later recruiting and stimulating differentiation of osteoblast precursors for bone formation. Acting to regulate intracellular calcium concentrations, it is vital in control of the secretion of insulin and other hormones. It also has a role (together with vitamin a) in regulation of cell differentiation and replication, and control of the cell cycle. De.ciency causes rickets in young children, osteomalacia in adults. Not widely distributed in foods; egg yolk, butter, oily .sh and enriched margarine are the only signi.cant sources. Reference

VITAMIN D
intakes are 10–15 µg/day for adults, amounts that are unlikely to be obtained from unsupplemented diets. The obsolete international unit of vitamin D = 25ng calciol; 1mg calciol = 40 IU.

vitamin D resistant rickets See rickets.
vitamin D toxicity Excessive intake of vitamin D results in disturbance of calcium metabolism, resulting in hypercalcaemia, dangerously raised blood calcium concentrations, leading to raised blood pressure, and calcinosis, inappropriate deposition of calcium in soft tissues, leading to brain and kidney hurt. Excessive exposure to sunlight does not lead to excessive formation of vitamin D because previtamin D undergoes further light-catalysed reactions to inactive compounds, and there is only limited availability of 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin.
vitamin E (see p. 502) Two main groups of compounds have vitamin E activity: the tocopherols and the tocotrienols; there are four isomers of each: a-, ß-, .- and d-tocopherols and a-, ß-, .and d-tocotrienols, with differing potencies. De.ciency symptoms vary considerably in different animal species; sterility in mouse, rat, rabbit, sheep and turkey; muscular dystrophy in several species; capillary permeability in chick and turkey; anaemia in monkey. Human dietary de.ciency is unknown, but hereditary lack of ß-lipoprotein leads to functional de.ciency, with severe neurological hurt. Premature infants may show haemolytic anaemia as a result of vitamin E de.ciency. Functions as an antioxidant in cell membranes, protecting unsaturated fatty acids from oxidative hurt. It also has membrane-speci.c functions, and a role in cell signalling and modulation of gene expression. The vitamin E content of foods is expressed as milligrams atocopherol equivalent (based on the different potency of the different vitamers). The obsolete international unit of vitamin E

VITAMIN E
activity was equal to 1 mg of synthetic a-tocopherol; on this basis
natural source a-tocopherol is 1.49IU/mg. vitamin F Sometimes used for the essential fatty acids. vitamin G Obsolete name for vitamin b2.
vitamin K Two groups of compounds have vitamin K activity: phylloquinones (vitamin K1), found in all green plants, and a variety of menaquinone (vitamin K2) synthesised by intestinal bacteria. Vitamin K3 is a synthetic analogue, menadione. Functions as coenzyme in carboxylation of glutamate to .carboxyglutamate in a number of calcium binding proteins, including prothrombin and other proteins involved in the blood clotting system, the bone protein osteocalcin, and the product of the growth arrest-speci.c gene (Gas-6), which is vital in regulation of growth and development. Dietary de.ciency is unknown, except associated with general malabsorption diseases. But, some newborn infants are at risk of developing haemorrhagic disease as a result of low vitamin K status, and it is general practice to give a single relatively large dose of the vitamin by injection. See also anticoagulants; dicoumarol; warfarin.

VITAMIN K
vitamin L Factors extracted from yeast and thought at the time to be essential for lactation; they have not become established vitamins.
vitamin M Obsolete name for folic acid.
vitaminoids Name given to compounds with ‘vitamin-like’ activity; considered by some to be vitamins or partially to replace vitamins. Include .avonoids (vitamin p), inositol, carnitine, choline, lipoic acid and the essential fatty acids (see fatty acids, essential). With the exception of the essential fatty acids, there is no evidence that any of them is a dietary essential.
vitamin P Name given to a group of plant .avonoids (sometimes called bio.avonoids) that affect the strength of blood capillaries: rutin (in buckwheat), hesperidin, eriodictin and citrin (a mixture of hesperidin and eriodictin in the pith of citrus fruits). Now considered that the effect is pharmacological and that they are not dietary essentials, although they have antioxidant activity. Called vitamin P from the German permeabilitäts vitamin, because of the effect on capillary permeability and fragility.
vitamin PP The pellagra-preventing vitamin, an ancient name for niacin before it was identi.ed.
vitamin Q See ubiquinone.
vitamin T Factor found in insect cuticle, mould mycelia and yeast fermentation liquor, claimed to accelerate maturation and promote protein synthesis. Also known as torulitine. Said to be a mixture of folic acid, vitamin B12 and deoxyribosides (DNA); hence not a particular vitamin.
vitellin The major protein of egg yolk; approximately 80% of the total; a phosphoprotein accounting for 30% of the phosphorus of egg yolk.
VLDL Very low-density lipoprotein, see lipoproteins, plasma.

VOC Volatile organic compounds
vodka Made from neutral spirit, i.e. alcohol distillate mainly from potatoes, with small or no acid, so that there is no ester formation and hence no .avour. Polish vodka is .avoured with a variety of herbs and fruits.
voidage The fraction of the total volume occupied by air (the degree of openness) of a bed of material in .uidised-bed drying.
VolTM Commercial ammonium carbonate, a mixture of ammonium bicarbonate and carbamate. Used as aerating agent in baking, as it breaks down to carbon dioxide, ammonia and steam on heating, without leaving any residue.
volvulus Twisting of part of the gastrointestinal tract, leading to partial or complete obstruction.
votator Machine used for the continuous manufacture of margarine; the stout and water are emulsi.ed, and the subsequent conditioning process carried out in the same machine.
VP Vacuum packaging.
VSP Vacuum skin packaging.
W
wähe Swiss; tarts made from yeast-leavened dough .lled with fruit, vegetables or cheese.
waist:hip circumference ratio Simple method for describing the
distribution of subcutaneous and intra-abdominal adipose tissue. wakame Japanese; lobe leaf seaweed, normally dried. Composition/100g: water 80g, 188kJ (45kcal), protein 3g, stout
0.6g, carbohydrate 9.1g (0.6g sugars), .bre 0.5g, ash 7.2g, Ca 150mg, Fe 2.2mg, Mg 107mg, P 80mg, K 50mg, Na 872mg, Zn 0.4mg, Cu 0.3mg, Mn 1.4mg, Se 0.7 µg, vitamin A 18 µg RE (216 µg carotenoids), E 1mg, K 71.7mg, B1 0.06mg, B2 0.23mg, niacin 1.6mg, folate 196 µg, pantothenate 0.7mg, C 3mg.
walnuts The rough shelled English walnut, black walnut, hickory nut and butternut are all botanically walnuts. Common English walnut (so-called because carried round the world for centuries in English ships) is Juglans regia.
Black walnuts, composition/100g: (edible part 24%) water
4.6g,2587kJ (618kcal),protein 24.1g,stout 59g (of which 6% saturated, 28% mono-unsaturated, 66% polyunsaturated), carbohydrate 9.9g (1.1g sugars), .bre 6.8g, ash 2.5g, Ca 61mg, Fe
3.1mg, Mg 201mg, P 513mg, K 523mg, Na 2mg, Zn 3.4mg, Cu
1.4mg, Mn 3.9mg, Se 17 µg, vitamin A 2 µg RE (33 µg carotenoids), E 1.8mg, K 2.7mg, B1 0.06mg, B2 0.13mg, niacin
0.5mg, B6 0.58mg, folate 31 µg, pantothenate 1.7 mg, C 2 mg. A 20 g serving (3 nuts) is a source of Mg, P, a excellent source of Cu, a rich source of Mn.
English walnuts, composition/100 g: (edible part 45%) water 4.1g, 2738kJ (654kcal), protein 15.2g, stout 65.2g (of which 10% saturated, 14% mono-unsaturated, 76% polyunsaturated), carbohydrate 13.7g (2.6g sugars),.bre 6.7g,ash 1.8g,Ca 98mg, Fe 2.9mg, Mg 158mg, P 346mg, K 441mg, Na 2mg, Zn 3.1mg, Cu 1.6mg, Mn 3.4mg, Se 4.9 µg, vitamin A 1 µg RE (21 µg carotenoids), E 0.7mg, K 2.7mg, B1 0.34mg, B2 0.15mg, niacin
1.1mg, B6 0.54mg, folate 98 µg, pantothenate 0.6 mg, C 1 mg. A 20 g serving (3 nuts) is a excellent source of Cu, Mn.
Walnut oil is 10% saturated, 24% mono-unsaturated, 66% polyunsaturated,contains 0.4 mg vitamin E,15 mg vitamin K/100g.
wappato See arrowhead.
Warfarin Synthetic compound that acts as a vitamin k antagonist, by inhibiting vitamin K epoxide reductase (EC 1.1.4.1). Used clinically to impair blood clotting in patients at risk of thrombosis, and as a rodenticide. Named for the Wisconsin Alumnus Research Fund, which sponsored the research that led to its discovery (1951). Use of Warfarin in pregnancy can lead to fetal abnormalities (the fetal Warfarin syndrome) as a result of inhibition of the vitamin K-dependent carboxylation of the product of the growth arrest-speci.c (Gas-6) gene, which is vital in regulation of growth and development.
wari Indian, Pakistani; dried balls of legume and cereal .our that has undergone a yeast fermentation; can be stored for some months, then deep fried.
wasabe Japanese; pungent condiment prepared from dried horseradish and mustard.
wash, spent See spent wash.
wassail (1) Spiced ale.
(2) Salutation or toast drunk to a person’s health. wastel Medieval English; .ne white bread made from sifted .our. water activity (aw) Ratio between vapour pressure of water in the
food and that of pure water at the same temperature. Most bacteria cannot grow at aw below 0.9, yeasts below 0.85 and moulds below 0.7. So-called dehydrated foods have aw lower than 0.6.
water balance The balance between intake and excretion of .uids. Average daily intakes are: as drinks 1–1.5 L; as aqueous part of food, 0.5L; and formed in the body by oxidation of foodstuffs (metabolic water), 300–500mL; total 2–3L. Losses from the lungs, 400–500mL; through the skin 400–500mL; in faeces 80–100mL; in urine 1–1.8L. Total body water is 500 (female)–600 (male) mL/kg body weight. Of this, 57% is intracellular and 43% extracellular; 7% of the total is in blood plasma. The kidney controls the volume of extracellular water by excreting water. Ingestion of sodium chloride (salt) raises the osmotic pressure of the extracellular water, causing thirst.
water binding capacity See meat, water binding capacity.

water biscuit See crackers.
water, bound Water that is physically or chemically bound to the food matrix, so that it has a lower vapour pressure than would be expected.
waterbrash Sudden .lling of the mouth with dilute saliva.
water chestnut Seeds of Trapa natans and T. bicornis; see chestnut.
watercress Leaves of Nasturtium of.cinale (green watercress, remains green in autumn and is susceptible to frost) and N. microphyllum × of.cinale (brown or winter watercress); eaten raw in salads.
Composition/100g: (edible part 92%) water 95g, 46kJ (11kcal),protein 2.3g,stout 0.1g,carbohydrate 1.3g (0.2g sugars), .bre 0.5g, ash 1.2g, Ca 120mg, Fe 0.2mg, Mg 21mg, P 60mg, K 330mg, Na 41mg, Zn 0.1mg, Cu 0.1mg, Mn 0.2mg, Se 0.9 µg, vitamin A 235 µg RE (8587 µg carotenoids), E 1 mg, K 250 mg, B1
0.09mg, B2 0.12mg, niacin 0.2mg, B6 0.13mg, folate 9 µg, pantothenate 0.3 mg, C 43 mg. A 20 g serving (quarter bunch) is a source of vitamin C.
water, demineralised Water that has been puri.ed by passage through a bed of ion-exchange resin or treatment by reverse osmosis (see osmosis,reverse),which removes mineral salts.Demineralised or deionised water is at least as pure as distilled water. See also water, remineralised.
water, extracellular, intracellular See water balance.
water-glass Sodium silicate; used at one time to preserve eggs, by forming a layer of insoluble calcium silicate around the shell, so sealing the pores.
water hardness Soap-precipitating power of water due to the formation of insoluble calcium and magnesium salts of the soap. Temporary hardness (carbonates) is removed by boiling, permanent hardness (sulphates) is not. May be measured in degrees Clarke; one degree = 10 ppm calcium carbonate.
water holding capacity See meat, water holding capacity.
water ice See sorbet.
water lemon See passion fruit.
waterless cooking Cooking in a heavy pan with tightly .tting lid,

with a steam vent; only a minimal amount of cooking liquid is needed, but the food is not cooked under pressure.
Waterlow classi.cation A system for classifying protein–energy malnutrition in children based on wasting (the percentage of expected weight for height) and the degree of stunting (the percentage of expected height for age).
See also gomez classi.cation; wellcome classi.cation. watermelon Fruit of Citrullus vulgaris.
Composition/100g: (edible part 52%) water 91g, 126kJ (30kcal),protein 0.6g,stout 0.2g,carbohydrate 7.6g (6.2g sugars), .bre 0.4g, ash 0.3g, Ca 7mg, Fe 0.2mg, Mg 10mg, P 11mg, K 112mg, Na 1mg, Zn 0.1mg, Se 0.4 µg, vitamin A 28 µg RE (4921 µg carotenoids),E 0.1mg,K 0.1mg,B1 0.03mg,B2 0.02mg, niacin 0.2mg,B6 0.05mg,folate 3 µg,pantothenate 0.2mg,C 8mg. A 120g serving is a source of vitamin C.
water, metabolic Produced in the body by the oxidation of foods. 100g of stout produces 107.1g, 100g of starch produces 55.1g and 100g of protein produces 41.3g of water. See also water balance.
water, mineral Natural, untreated, spring waters, some of which are naturally carbonated, may be slightly alkaline or salty. Numerous health claims have been made for the bene.ts arising from the traces of a large number of minerals found in solution. They are normally named after the town nearest the source. Examples are Evian, Malvern, Apollinaris, Vichy, Vittel, Perrier. Sparkling mineral water may either contain the gases naturally present at the source or may be arti.cially carbonated (soda water, Seltzer water or club soda). Carbonated beverages are sometimes called minerals.
water, remineralised Bottled water that has been demineralised (see water, demineralised) by reverse osmosis (see osmosis, reverse), then had speci.c minerals added.
waxes esters of fatty acids with long-chain monohydric alcohols (fats are esters of fatty acids with the trihydric alcohol glycerol). For example, beeswax, myricyl palmitate; spermaceti, cetyl palmitate. Animal waxes are often esters of the steroid alcohol cholesterol.
waxing Coating fruits and vegetables with a thin layer of edible wax. In the case of apples and oranges this replaces the natural wax that is removed when the crop is washed; in the case of vegetables it is an addition; in both instances the waxing prevents loss of moisture, prolongs storage life and improves the appearance.
waxy .our Flour prepared from varieties of rice and maize that have starch with waxy adhesive properties, and acts as a stabiliser in sauces. See also corn.our.
WBC See meat, water binding capacity.
WCRF World Cancer Research Fund, an international alliance of organisations dedicated to the prevention and control of cancer through healthy diets and lifestyles. Web site http://www. wcrf.org/.
weaning foods Foods specially formulated for infants aged between 3 and 9 months for the transition between breast or bottle feeding and normal intake of solid foods.
Weende analysis See proximate analysis.
weenie American name for small sausages, abbreviation of wienerwurst.
weight, desirable (ideal) Standardised tables of desirable (or ideal) weight for height for adults are based on life expectancy; both undernutrition and obesity are associated with increased risk of premature death. See also body mass index.
weight-for-age An index of the adequacy of the child’s nutrition to support growth. Standard weight-for-age is the 50th centile of the weight-for-age curves of well-fed children. See also anthropometry; nchs standards.
weight-for-height For children, can be used as an alternative to weight-for-age as an index of nutritional adequacy; for adults it is the only acceptable way of expressing weight relative to ideal or desirable weight. See also anthropometry; body mass index; nchs standards; weight, desirable.
weighting oils See brominated oils.
weisse See beer.
Wellcome classi.cation A system for classifying protein–energy

malnutrition in children based on percentage of expected weight for age and the presence or absence of oedema. Between 60 and 80% of expected weight is underweight in the absence of oedema, and is kwashiorkor if oedema is present; under 60% of expected weight is marasmus in the absence of oedema, and is marasmic kwashiorkor if oedema is present.
See also gomez classi.cation; waterlow classi.cation.
Welsh rarebit (Originally rabbit); melted cheese, mixed with mustard powder, pepper and brown ale, served on toast. Buck rarebit is Welsh rarebit topped with a poached egg.
Wensleydale English hard cheese, originally made from sheep or goat milk, now cow milk; may be blue veined.
Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome The result of brain hurt due to vitamin b1 de.ciency, commonly associated with alcohol abuse. Affected subjects show clear signs of neurological hurt, including nystagmus with psychiatric changes (korsakoff’s psychosis) characterised by loss of recent memory and confabulation, the invention of fabulous tales.
See also alcoholism; beriberi. Wesson oil Cottonseed oil deodorised by a high temperature vacuum process developed by David Wesson in 1899.
western blot See blotting.
wet bulb temperature Temperature measured by a wet thermometer in an air–water vapour mixture, as a means of determining humidity.
wettability The ability of a powder to absorb water and start the process of reconstituting a dried material.
Wetzel Grid Children are grouped by physique into .ve groups, ranging from tall and thin to small and thick-set. A healthy child will grow, as measured by height and weight, along one of these channels at a standard rate, if s/he deviates from the channel, malnutrition is suspected.
See also anthropometry; weight-for-age; weight-for-height. wey Obsolete measure; 48 bushels of oats or 40 bushels of salt or corn.
WHC See meat, water holding capacity.
wheat The most vital of the cereals and one of the most widely grown crops. Many thousand varieties are known but there are three main types: Triticum vulgare, used mainly for bread; T. durum (durum wheat), largely used for pasta; and T. compactum (club wheat), too soft for ordinary bread. The berry is composed of the outer branny husk, 13% of the grain, the germ or embryo (rich in nutrients) 2%, and the central endosperm (mainly starch) 85%.
Composition/100 g (varying between red and white varieties, and spring or winter sown): water 9–13g, 1370–1430kJ (330– 340kcal), protein 10–15g, stout 1.5–2g (of which 27% saturated, 18% mono-unsaturated, 55% polyunsaturated), carbohydrate 68–75g (0.4g sugars),.bre 12–13g,ash 1.5–1.9g,Ca 25–32mg,Fe 3–5 mg, Mg 90–130 mg, P 290–490 mg, K 360–430 mg, Na 2 mg, Zn 2.7–3.5mg,Cu 0.4mg,Mn 4mg,Se 30–70 µg, 225 µg carotenoids), vitamin E 1mg,K 1.9mg,B1 0.4–0.5mg,B2 0.1mg,niacin 4–5mg, B6 0.3–0.4 mg, folate 40 µg, pantothenate 1 mg. European wheats are lower in Se than those grown in N America.
Wheat germ oil is 20% saturated, 16% mono-unsaturated, 65% polyunsaturated,vitamin E 149.4mg,K 24.7mg/100g. See also .our, extraction rate; germ, wheat.
wheatfeed Also called millers’ offal and wheat offals; by-product from milling of wheat, other than the germ; bran of various particle sizes and varying amounts of attached endosperm.
wheatmeal, national See .our, wheatmeal.
whelks shell.sh; several types of spiral-shelled marine molluscs, especially Buccinum undatum, Fusus antiquus. Composition/100g:water 66g,573kJ (137kcal),protein 23.8g, stout 0.4g,cholesterol 65mg,carbohydrate 7.8g,ash 2g,Ca 57mg, Fe 5mg,Mg 86mg,P 141mg,K 347mg,Na 206mg,Zn 1.6mg,Cu 1mg, Mn 0.4mg, Se 44.8 µg, vitamin A 26 µg RE (26 µg retinal), E 0.1mg,K 0.1mg,B1 0.03mg,B2 0.11mg,niacin 1mg,B6 0.34mg, folate 6 µg, B12 9.1 µg, pantothenate 0.2mg, C 4mg. An 85g serving is a source of Mn, P, vitamin B6,a excellent source of Mg, a rich source of Cu, Fe, Se, vitamin B12.
whey The residue from milk after removal of the casein and most of the stout (as in cheese-making); also known as lactoserum. Contains about 1% protein (lactalbumin and lactoglobulin) together with all the lactose, water-soluble vitamins and minerals, and therefore has some food value, although it is 92% water. Whey cheese (e.g. ricotta) is made by heat coagulation of the protein and whey butter from the small amount of stout (0.25%). Dried whey is added to processed cheese; much whey is fed in liquid form to pigs, and it is also used to produce nutritional supplements and beverages..
Whipple’s disease Rare genetic disease occurring only in males, in which intestinal absorption is impaired, accompanied by skin pigmentation and arthritis.
whipworm Whip-like nematode worm (Trichuris trichiura or Trichocephalus dispar) parasitic in the large intestine.
whiskey, whisky A grain spirit distilled from barley, rye, maize or other cereal that has .rst been malted (see malt) and then fermented. Most brands of whisky are a blend of malt whisky with spirit distilled from grain. The distilled spirit is diluted to about 62% alcohol and matured in wooden casks; Irish and Scotch whisky, made from malted barley, are matured for at least three years. Bourbon, made from malted maize, for at least one year. Sour mash bourbon is made from mash that has yeast left in it from a previous fermentation. Other American and Canadian whiskies are made from rye. Diluted after maturation and generally around 40% alcohol by volume, 920kJ (220kcal)/100mL. Both spellings permitted but generally whisky is the Scotch variety and whiskey the Irish and American varieties. Name derived from the Gaelic uisge beatha, water of life.
whitebait A mixture of young herrings and sprats (fresh or frozen); they are caught together and are impossible to separate on a commercial scale.
white blood cells See leucocytes.
white.sh Oily freshwater .sh, Coregonus spp.
white foots Fine white precipitate of calcium and other salts deposited in jars of meat cured with rock salt.
white pudding Sausage made from white meat (chicken, rabbit, pork), cereal and spices. The French version, boudin blanc, includes eggs and onions. Irish white pudding is made from .ake or leaf lard and oatmeal, spiced; served sliced and fried.
white spirits Distilled spirits from fermented fruit; eau de vie or alcool blanc in French, schnapps in German.
whiting White .sh, Merlangius merlangus.
WHO World Health Organization, headquarters in Geneva; web site http://www.who.int/en/.
wholefoods Foods that have been minimally re.ned or processed, and are eaten in their natural state. In general nothing is removed from,or added to,the foodstuffs in preparation.Wholegrain cereal products are made by milling the complete grain.
wholesome Description applied to food that is .t for human consumption.
wholewheat meal Flour or meal prepared by milling the whole wheat grain, i.e. 100% extraction rate. See .our, extraction rate.
whortleberry See bilberry.
Wilson’s disease genetic disease due to de.ciency of ceruloplasmin, affecting copper metabolism, leading to accumulation of copper in liver and brain. Also known as hepatolenticular degeneration.
WIN Weight-control Information Network of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; web site http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health/nutrit/nutrit.htm/.
windberry See bilberry.
wine Fermented juice from grapes (varieties of Vitis vinifera), also made with other fruits and even vegetables with the addition of sugar. Red wines are made by fermenting the juice together with the skins at 21–29°C; white wines normally from white grapes by fermenting the juice alone at 15–17°C; rosé by removing the skins after 12–36 h, or by mixing red and white wines. Beverages made by fermenting other fruit juices and sugar in the presence of vegetables or leaves or roots are also called wines (elderberry, elder .ower, parsnip, peapod, rhubarb, etc.), although the legal de.nition may be restricted to the fermented grape. See alcoholic beverages. Wines generally contain 9–14% alcohol, dry wines 290kJ (70kcal), sweet wines 500kJ (120kcal), and about 1mg iron/ 100 mL; only traces of vitamins.
wine, apéritif Slightly bitter-tasting forti.ed wines drunk before meals, vermouth, including (trade names) Amer Picon, Bonal, Byrrh, Campari, Dubonnet, Fernet-Branca, Martini, Saint Raphaël. Made from red or white wine forti.ed with spirit and .avoured with herbs and quinine. 15–25% alcohol by volume, 5–10% sugars, 75–130kcal (320–550kJ) per 100mL.
wineberry Orange coloured fruit of the Japanese and Chinese wild raspberry, Rubus phoenicolasius, and now also hybrids with European cultivated raspberries.
wine, British Made in Fantastic Britain from imported grape juice or concentrated grape juice, as distinct from English wine, which is made from grapes grown in England.
wine classi.cation Many of the major wine-producing countries have legally enforced systems of classi.cation of wines based on grape varieties used and regions of production. Other countries have a system of denomination of origin for wines grown in de.ned regions which may or may not re.ect quality. The national classi.cations are as follows (in increasing order of quality for each country).
wine classi.cation, Austria As for Germany (see wine classi.cation, germany), with an additional classi.cation of QmP wines, ausbruch, intermediate in sweetness between beerenauslese and trockenbeerenauslese.
wine classi.cation, Bulgaria Three grades: wines of declared variety of brand; wine of declared geographical origin (DGO); controliran, which are speci.c varieties grown in speci.c areas.
The best of DGO and controliran wines can be offered as reserve, and in exceptional years as special reserve.
wine classi.cation, Canada Wines from speci.ed areas (three designated areas in Ontario and four in British Columbia) are marked VQA (Vintners’ Quality Alliance, Canada). Wines must be made from classic grape varieties or preferred hybrids, and the wine must contain at least 85% of the variety named on the mark. Wines described as estate-bottled must be made only from grapes owned or controlled by the winery; if a particular vineyard designation is used, the site must be within a recognised viticultural area and all the grapes must come from the designated vineyard. Ice wine (see eiswein) made from grapes that have frozen on the vine, very sweet.
wine classi.cation, France Vin de table (or vin ordinaire); vin de pays (subdivided into vin de pays de zone for wines from a single area; départementaux for wines from one département; régionaux for wines from more than one département); vin délimité de qualité supérieure (VDQS); appellation contrôlée (AC) or appellation d’origine contrôlée (AOC) for wines from a speci.ed area, from speci.ed grape varieties grown under controlled conditions.
wine classi.cation, Germany Tafelwein (Deutscher Tafelwein is of German origin; wine marked simply as Tafelwein may be of mixed origin); Landwein (dry or half-dry wines from one of 15 designated areas); Qualitätswein bestimmer Anbaugebeite, QbA (from 11 designated areas and approved grape varieties, sugar may be added to increase sweetness, each bottle carries a batch number (Amtliche Prüfungsnummer, AP), as proof that it complies with QbA status); Qualitätswein mit Prädikat, QmP (with six quality gradings based on the level of natural sugar at harvest and extra sugar may not be added: kabinett, light, fruity and delicate, usually dry; spätlese, late picked grapes, dry to sweet; auslese, selected late picked grapes, rich and sweet; beerenauslese, late picked grapes affected by ‘noble rot’ (Botrytis cinerea), always sweet; trockenbeerenauslese, late picked grapes that have dried to raisins on the vine, strong and sweet; eiswein, rare, made from grapes that have frozen on the vine, very sweet.
wine classi.cation, Italy Vini de tavola (Vdt); vini di tavola con indicazione geogra.ca (from a particular area); vini tipici (equivalent to French vin de pays); denominazione di origine controllata (DOC, from speci.ed areas and grape varieties); denominazione di origine controllata e garantita (DOCG, as DOC but with more stringent regulations and control).
wine classi.cation, Luxembourg Appellation contrôlée wines must carry a vintage; bottles carry a neck mark awarded by the state controlled Marque Nationale after tasting, according to the strength of the wine; in order of increasing alcohol content the grades are: non admis, marque nationale, vin classé, premier cru, grand premier cru.
wine classi.cation, Portugal Indicação de proveniencia regulamentada (IPR); região demarcada (RD, the same as appellation contrôlée).Table wines are vinho de mesa,wines aged more than 1 year are vinho maduro.
wine classi.cation, South Africa Classi.cation by variety of grape and area of production; coloured seals used as: blue band indicates that origin is certi.ed; red band guarantees vintage year; green band certi.es grape varieties; ‘estate’ certi.es that it is from one estate;‘superior’ on gold seal indicates superior quality. Wines also carry identi.cation numbers to testify that controls have been adhered to during production.
wine classi.cation, Spain Vinos de la tierra (two-thirds of the grapes must come from the region named on the mark); denominacion de origen (DO).
wine classi.cation, USA Each state has its own appellation of origin; in addition American wine or vin de table is blended wine from one or more areas; multistate appellation is wine from two or three neighbouring states (the percentage from each must be shown on the mark); for State and County appellation at least 75% must come from the designated area. Approved viticultural areas must have de.ned boundaries, speci.c characteristics and a proven reputation for quality; 85% of the grapes used must come from the de.ned area; when an individual vineyard is named, 95% of the grapes must have been grown there. A vintage year may be declared if at least 95% of the wine has been fermented in the calendar year claimed. For tax purposes a table wine must be between 10 and 14% alcohol, stronger wines are classi.ed as dessert wines, even if dry; dessert wines between 17 and 21% alcohol are classi.ed by alcoholic strength, not sweetness. US Wines may be sold by a generic classi.cation (e.g. Chablis or Loire); such names are prohibited from export to the EU.
wine, forti.ed Made by adding brandy or spirits to increase the alcohol content of the wine to 15–18% and so prevent further fermentation (to acids) in warm climates, e.g. madeira, marsala, port, sherry.
wine, sparkling Wine containing bubbles of carbon dioxide, bottled under pressure. Three methods of production:
(1) The méthode champenoise in which the wine undergoes a second fermentation in the bottle. Wine produced outside the Champagne region of France may not be called champagne, even if made by this method.
(2)
The tank or bulk method, in which the wine is bottled while still fermenting slightly.

(3)
The addition of carbon dioxide gas while bottling. Lightly sparkling wines are known as pétillante or frizzante; they are often young wines, bottled while still fermenting.

wine, sweetness The UK Wine Promotion Board classi.es white and rosé wines from 1 for very dry wines (0.6% sugars) to 9 (very sweet, 6% sugars). For red wines the classi.cation is from A (light and dry) to E (full-bodied heavy wines). German and Austrian marking is: trocken (dry), halbtrocken (half dry), halbsüss or lieben (medium sweet) and süss (very sweet).
winkle (periwinkle) Small, snail-like, marine molluscs, Littorina littorea.
winter berry Fruit of the American evergreen shrub Gaultheria procumbens,red, with a spicy .avour; used mainly for pies and sauces.
winterization Process involving slow cooling of oils and removal of the precipitated fats with a relatively high melting point, so that the .nal product remains clear when refrigerated.
wisdom teeth Third molar tooth on each side of both jaws; usually erupt in late adolescence.
witches’ milk Secretion of the mammary gland of the newborn of both sexes, because of the presence of the hormone prolactin which travels from the blood of the mother into the fetus. Also known as sorcerers’ milk.
witchetty grubs Australian edible grubs, species of longicorn beetle (Xylentes spp.).
witloof See chicory.
WOF Warmed over .avour.
wok Chinese vessel for stir frying;a shallow bowl-shaped pan in
which food can be fried rapidly in a small amount of oil over a high heat.
wood alcohol See methanol.
wood sugar See xylose.
wool green S A green colour, Green S (E-142).
worcester berry American species of gooseberry, Ribes

divaricatum.
Worcestershire sauce Thin spicy sauce; recipes are usually ‘secret’ but basically soya, tamarinds, anchovies, garlic and spices, plus sugar, salt and vinegar, traditionally matured in oak casks.
work See energy.
wormseed See epazote.
wort Aqueous extract of malt in brewing. See beer.
WPC Whey protein concentrate.
wraplings See wuntun.
WTO World Trade Organization, web site http://www.wto.org/.
wuntun (wonton) Chinese; small dough parcels containing meat, boiled or deep fried. Also known as chiao-tzu or wraplings.
X
XangoldTM Natural source esters of the carotenoids xanthophyll and lutein.
xanthaemia See carotinaemia.
xanthan gum Complex polymer made by bacterial fermentation; stable to wide range of pH and temperatures; used as thickening agent to form gels, increase viscosity in foods.
xanthelasma Yellow fatty plaques on the eyelids, due to hypercholesterolaemia.
xanthine A purine, intermediate in the metabolism of adenine and guanine to uric acid. caffeine (in coffee and tea) is 1,3,7trimethylxanthine; theophylline (in tea) is 1,3-dimethylxanthine; theobromine (in cocoa) is 3,7-dimethylxanthine.
xanthoma Yellow skin lesion associated with disorders of lipid metabolism, and especially hypercholesterolaemia.
xanthophylls Hydroxylated carotenoids. Occur in all green leaves together with chlorophyll and carotene, also present in egg yolk, cape gooseberry, etc. Most have no vitamin a activity. Include .avoxanthin (E-161a), lutein (161b), cryptoxanthin (E161c, is vitamin A precursor), rubixanthin (161e), rhodoxanthin (161f), canthaxanthin (161g).
xanthoproteic reaction Test for proteins (really for the aromatic rings of phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan). Yellow colour on boiling with nitric acid, turns orange on adding ammonia.
xanthosis Yellowing of the skin associated with high blood concentrations of carotene.
XenicalTM See orlistat.
xenobiotic Substances foreign to the body, including drugs and some food additives.
xerophilic See osmophiles.
xerophthalmia Advanced vitamin a de.ciency in which the epithelium of the cornea and conjunctiva of the eye deteriorates because of impairment of the tear glands, resulting in dryness then ulceration, leading to blindness.
xerosis Abnormal dryness of conjunctiva, skin or mucous membranes. xerostomia Dry mouth, a common side effect of a variety of drugs. See also ptyalism.
X-ray diffraction Technique for determination of crystal structures (e.g. of proteins) by analysis of the diffraction pattern of a beam of X-rays shone through the crystal.
xylanase Mixture of enzymes of fungal or bacterial origin that hydrolyse xylans: ß-1,4-endoxylanase (EC 3.2.1.8) and ß-dxylosidase (EC 3.2.1.32). Sometimes added to poultry and pig feed to increase the digestibility of cereal non-starch polysaccharides.
xylans Polysaccharides of xylose, not digested, part of non-starch polysaccharide;a major component of hemicellulose.
xylitol A .ve-carbon sugar alcohol found in raspberries, endive, lettuce; 80–100% of the sweetness of sucrose; used in sugar-free hard sweets and gelatine gums. Apart from being of low cariogenicity, xylitol is said to have an effect in suppressing the growth of some of the bacteria associated with dental caries (see tooth-friendly sweets).
xyloascorbic acid Term used for ascorbic acid (vitamin c) to distinguish from isoascorbic acid (see erythorbic acid), which is araboascorbic acid and has only slight vitamin C activity.
xyloglucan One of the hemicelluloses in plant cell walls, linking cellulose .bres. A component of non-starch polysaccharide.
xylose Pentose (.ve-carbon) sugar found in plant tissues mainly as polysaccharides (xylans); 40% as sweet as sucrose. Also known as wood sugar. Mainly excreted unmetabolised, and used to test carbohydrate absorption.
xylulose Pentose (.ve-carbon) sugar occurring as a metabolic intermediate in the pentose phosphate pathway.
Y
YAC Yeast arti.cial chromosome, a specialised cloning vector that can carry large DNA inserts.
YakultTM yogurt containing live Lactobacillus spp. which are probiotics. Originally Japanese name for yoghurt fermented with L. casei.
yam Tubers of perennial climbing plants of a number of species of Dioscorea, D. rotundala white yam, and D. cayenensis, yellow or Guinea yam, water, trifoliate or Chinese yam. A major food in parts of Africa and also the Far East. In USA sweet potatoes (see potato, sweet) are sometimes called yam.
Composition/100g: (edible part 86%) water 70g, 494kJ (118kcal), protein 1.5g, stout 0.2g, carbohydrate 27.9g (0.5g sugars), .bre 4.1g, ash 0.8g, Ca 17mg, Fe 0.5mg, Mg 21mg, P 55mg, K 816mg, Na 9mg, Zn 0.2mg, Cu 0.2mg, Mn 0.4mg, Se
0.7 µg, vitamin A 7 µg RE (83 µg carotenoids), E 0.4mg,K 2.6mg, B1 0.11mg,B2 0.03mg,niacin 0.6mg,B6 0.29mg,folate 23 µg, pantothenate 0.3mg,C 17mg.A 130g serving is a source of vitamin B6, folate, a excellent source of Cu, Mn, a rich source of vitamin C.
yang See macrobiotic diet.
Yarmouth bloater See red herrings.
yautia See tannia.
yeast Unicellular organisms, sometimes grouped with the fungi; eukaryotic organisms with more complex subcellular organisation than bacteria. Some types are of major importance in the food industry. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. carlsbergensis are used in brewing, wine-making and baking. Yeasts such as Candida utilis (formerly Torula utilis) are grown on carbohydrate or hydrocarbon media as animal feed and potential human food, since they contain about 50% protein (dry weight) and are very rich in B vitamins. Some yeasts are pathogenic (especially Candida spp., which cause thrush); many are used in biotechnology for production of hormones (see hormones, human) and other proteins.
yeast extract A preparation of the water-soluble fraction of autolysed brewers’ yeast, valuable both as a source of B vitamins and for its strong savoury .avour; used as a drink or a breadspread. Composition/100g:water 37g,661kJ (158kcal),protein 27.8g, stout 0g, carbohydrate 11.8g, .bre 3g, ash 23.4g, Ca 86mg, Fe 3.7 mg,Mg 180mg,P 104mg,K 2600mg,Na 3600mg,Zn 2.1mg,Cu
0.3
mg, Se 18 µg, vitamin B1 9.7mg, B2 14.3mg, niacin 97mg, B6

1.3
mg, folate 1010 µg, B12 0.5 µg. A 6g serving is rich source of vitamin B1,B2, niacin, folate.

yeast fermentation, bottom Or deep fermentation; fermentation during the manufacture of beer with a yeast that sinks to the bottom of the tank. Most beers are produced this way; ale, porter and stout being the principal beers produced by top fermentation.
YeastrelTM, YeatexTM See yeast extract.
yeheb A nut, fruit of Cordeauxia edulis, originally from the Horn of Africa.
yellow fats See spread, stout.
yerba dulce The leaves of the Paraguayan shrub, Stevia rebaudiana, the source of stevioside and rebaudioside.
yerba maté See maté.
Yersinia enterocolitica Food poisoning organism that invades intestinal epithelial cells. Infective dose 106–107 organisms; onset 3–5 days; duration weeks; TX 4.1.3.1.
YestaminTM A variety of preparations of dried debittered brewers’ yeast (Saccharomyces spp.) used to enrich foods. yield Weight of food after processing as a percentage of unprocessed material.
yin See macrobiotic diet.
ylang-ylang oil Aromatic oil from .owers of Philippine tree Cananga odorata used as a .avouring in soft drinks, confectionery and baked goods.
YN A synthetic phospholipid (ammonium phosphatide) developed by Cadbury to replace lecithin as an emulsifying agent in chocolate manufacture.
yogurt Milk (from a variety of animals but usually cows) coagulated and fermented with two types of bacteria, Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus.The two organisms are symbiotic; each produces compounds that promote the growth of the other. Both act to precipitate and gel proteins; main .avour development is from the slower formation of d-lactic acid by L. bulgaricus, although S. thermophilus has a greater capacity to metabolise lactose to l-lactate. Stirred yogurt is prepared in bulk; set yogurt is fermented in the plastic containers in which it will be sold. Strained (Greek style) yogurt is prepared by removing some of the whey by straining through a cloth or by centrifugation. Drinking yogurt is a low-viscosity drink made by blending yogurt with fruit juice and sugar. May be pasteurised, when most of the bacteria are ruined, otherwise termed live yogurt. Bioyogurts also contain Lactobacillus acidophilus (see milk, acidophilus) and Bi.dobacterium bi.dum, which are claimed to enhance the growth of bene.cial bacteria in the intestine. See also milk, fermented.
yolk index Index of freshness of an egg; ratio between height and diameter of yolk under de.ned conditions. As the egg deteriorates, the yolk index decreases.
youngberry Cross between blackberry and dewberry.
yukwa Korean; snack food made by deep frying dried dough prepared by steeping waxy rice for 1–2 weeks.
yusho disease Caused by leakage of polychlorinated biphenyls which contaminated edible oil on the Japanese island of Kyushu in 1968.
Z
zabaglione (zabaione) Italian; frothy dessert made from egg yolks, sugar and wine (usually marsala) whisked over gentle heat until thick. French sabayon is similar.
ZAG Zinc a2 glycoprotein, secreted by various tumours; activates lipolysis and contributes to loss of adipose tissue in cachexia.
zampone Italian; pork sausage in which meat is stuffed into a boned pig’s trotter instead of casing.
zearalenone Trichothecene mycotoxin produced when cereals are infected with Fusarium spp.
zeaxanthin One of the carotenoid pigments in maize, egg yolk and Physalis (cape gooseberry); has no vitamin A activity; used as a colouring. See also lutein.
zébrine Variety of aubergine with purple and white stripes.
zedoary root Root of the Indian plant Curcuma zedoaria,a member of the ginger family. Used in the manufacture of .avours and bitters.
zeer Sudanese; earthenware vessel used for preparation of kawal.
zein A prolamin, the major protein of maize (Zea mays), very poor in lysine and tryptophan.
Z-enzyme Enzyme (ß-1,3-glucosidase, EC 3.2.1.58) found associated with amylases, that hydrolyses the few ß-1,3-links present in amylose. Pure, crystalline ß-amylase will convert only 70% of amylose to maltose; it requires the presence of the Z-enzyme for complete conversion.
ZeocarbTM An ion-exchange resin.
zest Outer skin of citrus fruits. See .avedo.
zinc An essential mineral which forms the prosthetic group of a large number of enzymes, and the nuclear receptor proteins for steroid and thyroid hormones and vitamins a and d. De.ciency results in hypogonadism and delayed puberty, small stature and mild anaemia; it occurs mainly in subtropical regions where a fantastic deal of zinc is lost in sweat, and the diet is largely based on unleavened wholemeal bread, in which much of the zinc is unavailable because of the high content of phytic acid. Intestinal absorption of zinc requires an (as yet unidenti.ed) organic zinc binding ligand secreted in pancreatic juice. De.ciency may also lead to functional vitamin A de.ciency because of impaired synthesis of retinol binding protein.
zitoni See pasta.
zizanie See rice, wild.
zNoseTM A surface acoustic wave-based sensor that permits extremely rapid gas chromatography with very high sensitivity – an ‘electronic nose’. See also eNose.
Zollinger–Ellison syndrome Excessive secretion of gastric acid due to high levels of circulating gastrin secreted by a pancreatic tumour.
zomotherapy Treatment of convalescents with raw meat or meat juice, long since discontinued.
zoopherin Obsolete name for vitamin b12.
zooplankton See plankton.
zucchini Italian variety of marrow developed to be harvested when small. American and Australian name for courgette.
Zucker rat A genetically obese strain of rat used in research.
z value See decimal reduction time.
zwieback German; twice-baked bread or rusk.
zwitterions An ionised molecule with both positive and negative charges, e.g. the amino acids.
Zygosaccharomyces Yeasts that grow in high concentrations of sugar (osmophilic) that cause spoilage of honey, jams, and syrups.
zymase Obsolete name for the mixture of enzymes in yeast which is responsible for fermentation.
zymogens The inactive form in which some enzymes, especially the protein digestive enzymes, are secreted, being activated after secretion. Also called proenzymes, or enzyme precursors.
zymotachygraph An instrument that measures the gas produced in a fermenting dough and the amount escaping from the dough, as an index of bread-making properties.

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